Mexico City

Mexico City

*Ciudad de México* (Spanish)
Co-official names^[a]
Mexico City Ciudad de México (Spanish); Co-official names
Capital and megacity
	Skyline of Mexico City with the Torre Latinoamericana Angel of Independence Museo Soumaya Monument to the Revolution Paseo de la Reforma from the Chapultepec Castle Cathedral and National Palace in the Zócalo Palace of Fine Arts Santa Fe business district
	Coat of arms Government logo
	Nickname(s): CDMX, La Ciudad de los Palacios; (The City of Palaces)
	Motto(s): Ciudad Innovadora y de Derechos (A City with Innovation and Rights)
	Anthem: Himno de la Ciudad de México
	Mexico City within Mexico
	Mexico City Location within Mexico Mexico City Mexico City (North America)
	Coordinates: 19°26′N 99°8′W / 19.433°N 99.133°W
Country	Mexico
Founded	13 March 1325:; Mexico-Tenochtitlan; 13 August 1521:; Ciudad de México; 18 November 1824:; Distrito Federal; 29 January 2016:; Ciudad de México; ;
Founded by	Tenoch (as Mexico-Tenochtitlan); Hernán Cortés (as Mexico City); ;
Government
• Mayor	Clara Brugada (MORENA)
Area [b]
• Capital and megacity	1,485 km2 (573 sq mi)
• Metro	7,866 km2 (3,037 sq mi)
	Ranked 32nd
Elevation	2,240 m (7,350 ft)
Highest elevation (Ajusco)	3,930 m (12,890 ft)
Population (2020)
• Capital and megacity	9,209,944
• Rank	1st in North America; 1st in Mexico
• Density	6,200/km2 (16,000/sq mi)
• Rank	1st
• Urban	23,146,802
• Metro	21,804,515
Demonyms	Capitalino (a); Mexiqueño (a) (archaic); Chilango (a) (colloquial);
GDP
• Capital and megacity	MXN 4.3 trillion; US$ 212 billion (2021)
• Metro area	MXN 6.8 trillion; US$ 340 billion (2021)
Time zone	UTC−06:00 (CST)
Postal code	00–16
Area code	55/56
ISO 3166 code	MX-CMX
Patron Saint	Philip of Jesus (Spanish: San Felipe de Jesús)
HDI	0.839 very high Ranked 1st of 32
Website	cdmx.gob.mx
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Historic center of Mexico City, Xochimilco and Central University City Campus of the UNAM
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, ii, iii, iv, v
Designated	1987, 2007 (11th, 31st sessions)
Reference no.	412, 1250
Region	Latin America and the Caribbean
	^ b. Area of Mexico City that includes non-urban areas at the south

Mexico City^[c] is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America.^[14]^[15] Mexico City is one of the most important cultural and financial centers in the world.^[16] It is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The city has 16 boroughs or demarcaciones territoriales, which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or colonias.

The 2020 population for the city proper was 9,209,944,^[8] with a land area of 1,495 square kilometers (577 sq mi).^[17] According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the population of Greater Mexico City is 21,804,515, which makes it the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the world, the second-largest urban agglomeration in the Western Hemisphere (behind São Paulo, Brazil), and the largest Spanish-speaking city (city proper) in the world.^[18] Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $411 billion in 2011, which makes it one of the most productive urban areas in the world.^[19] The city was responsible for generating 15.8% of Mexico's GDP, and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22% of the country's GDP.^[20] If it were an independent country in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America.^[21]

Mexico City is the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people.^[d] The city was originally built on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco by the Mexica around 1325, under the name Tenochtitlan. It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán,^[22] and as of 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City).^[22] Mexico City played a major role in the Spanish colonial empire as a political, administrative, and financial center.^[23] Following independence from Spain, the federal district was established in 1824.

After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were finally given the right to elect both a head of government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by election in 1997. Ever since, left-wing parties (first the Party of the Democratic Revolution and later the National Regeneration Movement) have controlled both of them.^[24] The city has several progressive policies,^[25]^[26] such as elective abortions,^[27] a limited form of euthanasia,^[28] no-fault divorce,^[29] same-sex marriage,^[30] and legal gender change.^[31] On 29 January 2016, it ceased to be the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.) and is now officially known as Ciudad de México (or CDMX), with a greater degree of autonomy.^[32]^[33] A clause in the Constitution of Mexico, however, prevents it from becoming a state within the Mexican federation, as long it remains the capital of the country.^[34]

Nicknames and mottos

Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of the Palaces"), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Germany, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe. But it was English politician Charles Latrobe who really penned the following: "... look at their works: the moles, aqueducts, churches, roads—and the luxurious City of Palaces which has risen from the clay-built ruins of Tenochtitlan...", on page 84 of the Letter V of The Rambler in Mexico.^[35]

During the colonial period, the city's motto was "Muy Noble e Insigne, Muy Leal e Imperial" (Very Noble and Distinguished, Very Loyal and Imperial).^[36]^[37] During Andrés Manuel López Obrador's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza (lit. 'The City of Hope'). This motto was quickly adopted as a city nickname but has faded since the new motto, Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement"), was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard, though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media. Up until 2013, it was common to refer to the city by the initialism "DF" from "Distrito Federal de México". Since 2013, the abbreviation "CDMX" (Ciudad de México) has been more common, particularly in relation to government campaigns.

The city is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals' nickname chilangos.^[38] Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to "connote a loud, arrogant, ill-mannered, loutish person".^[39] For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia ('the provinces', 'the periphery') and many proudly embrace the term chilango.^[39] Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe"). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but "[p]erhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized".^[40]

History

The oldest signs of human occupation in the area of Mexico City are those of the "Peñón woman" and others found in San Bartolo Atepehuacan (Gustavo A. Madero). They were believed to correspond to the lower Cenolithic period (9500–7000 BC).^[41] However, a 2003 study placed the age of the Peñon woman at 12,700 years old (calendar age),^[42] one of the oldest human remains discovered in the Americas. Studies of her mitochondrial DNA suggest she was either of Asian^[43] or European^[44] or Aboriginal Australian origin.^[45]

The area was the destination of the migrations of the Teochichimecas during the 8th and 13th centuries, people that would give rise to the Toltec, and Mexica (Aztecs) cultures. The latter arrived around the 14th century to settle first on the shores of the lake.

Aztec period

The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325 or 1327.^[46] The old Mexica city that is now referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which is shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco.^[47] According to legend, the Mexicas' principal god, Huitzilopochtli, indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear devouring a rattlesnake.^[48]

Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.^[48]

Spanish conquest

After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples,^[49] arriving there on 8 November 1519.^[50] Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa (Ixtapalapa), and the city's ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long.^[51] Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him.^[52]

Tensions increased until, on the night of 30 June 1520 – during a struggle known as "La Noche Triste" – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies.^[53] Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc.^[54] Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans.^[49] Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city.^[55] Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521.^[49] The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.^[50]

Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order.^[50] He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state, having power that extended far beyond its borders.^[56] Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves.^[56] Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico" because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.^[50]

Growth of colonial Mexico City

The city had been the capital of the Aztec Empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain. The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo. The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop's palace, and across from it the building housing the city council or ayuntamiento of the city. A late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central plaza of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central plaza of the nation. The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period:

The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem. The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones.^[57]

Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor. Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza, in orderly, well laid-out streets. Indigenous residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located.^[58] Spaniards sought to keep indigenous people separate but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Amerindians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced.^[59] At intervals Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692.^[60]

The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of indigenous over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for indigenous cultivation close to the capital.^[61] The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center.^[56] Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.^[62]

The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not.^[63] The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of "The city of palaces" given by Alexander Von Humboldt.^[50]^[56]^[63]

The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores"), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence"), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 27 September 1821.^[64] Agustín de Iturbide is proclaimed Emperor of the First Mexican Empire by Congress, crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico.

The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution.^[65] Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco de Mora and then Toluca became the capital of the State of Mexico.^[66]

Battle of Mexico City in the U.S.–Mexican War of 1847

During the 19th century, Mexico City was the center stage of all the political disputes of the country. It was the imperial capital on two occasions (1821–1823 and 1864–1867), and of two federalist states and two centralist states that followed innumerable coups d'états in the space of half a century before the triumph of the Liberals after the Reform War. It was also the objective of one of the two French invasions to Mexico (1861–1867), and occupied for a year by American troops in the framework of the Mexican–American War (1847–1848).

The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from 8 to 15 September 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on 8 August, where the Saint Patrick's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexicans, fought for the Mexican cause, repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick's Battalion, the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions.^[67] The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.^[68]

During this battle, on 13 September, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes"). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.^[69]

Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the Decena Trágica ("Ten Tragic Days") of February 1913, when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison.^[71] Huerta's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.

20th century to present

In the 20th century the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences dominate. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000.^[72] The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century^[56] and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city's first skyscraper.^[49]

The rapid development of Mexico City as a center for modernist architecture was most fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani, Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez Morado. It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[73]

The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities.^[56] In 1969, the Mexico City Metro was inaugurated.^[49] Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring State of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.^[56]

In 1980, half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shanty towns.

The inhabitants of Mexico City faced serious air pollution and water pollution problems, as well as groundwater-related subsidence.^[74] Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation.

The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco.^[75]

Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called "Los Halcones", composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the US.

On 19 September 1985, at 7:19am CST, the area was struck by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.^[76] The earthquake proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party state government. The Mexican government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well.^[77]

However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year, the presidency was set between the P.R.I.'s candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left-wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas. The counting system "fell" because coincidentally the power went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand.

As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency.

Geography

Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico.^[78]^[79]

It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters (16,000 feet).^[80] This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century.^[78]^[80]

Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco.^[78] Seismic activity is frequent there.^[81] Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed's heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater-related subsidence.

Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine meters (30 feet) in some areas. On average Mexico City sinks 20 inches (1 foot and 8 inches) or 50 centimetres (1/2 meters) every year.^[82] This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the summer.^[80]^[81]^[83] The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco.^[81]

Mexico City geophysical maps

Topography	Hydrology	Climate patterns

Environment

Originally much of the valley lay beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco, a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside Mexico City, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico.

Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for Recovering the City of Lakes. If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico, the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning.

Pollution

By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world's most polluted cities; however, the city has since become a model for drastically lowering pollution levels. By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped drastically, while sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were at levels about a third of those in 1992. The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles.^[84] Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone-polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO-defined safe limits.^[85]

To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides.^[86] When the levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week.^[86] The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels.^[86] The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and the Ecobici bike-sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation.^[85]

Parks and recreation

Chapultepec, the city's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of Polanco district, and houses the Chapultepec Zoo the main city's zoo, several ponds and seven museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology. Other iconic city parks include the Alameda Central, it is recognized as the oldest public park in the Americas.^[89]^[90] Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle, and Parque Lincoln in Polanco.^[91] There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small "squares" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts. Several other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan [es; no] and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente [es], offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón [ceb; es; no]. In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage Site. West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park. Amusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city.

Mexico City has three zoos. Chapultepec Zoo, the San Juan de Aragon Zoo [es; no] and Los Coyotes Zoo. Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in the Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924.^[92] Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others.^[93] Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964,^[94] there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and the Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others.^[95] Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68-acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on 2 February 1999.^[96] It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the area, featuring eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white-tailed deer.^[97]

Climate

Mexico City has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification Cwb), due to its tropical location but high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa, Iztacalco, Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta, a mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco. The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F), depending on the altitude of the borough. The temperature is rarely below 3 °C (37 °F) or above 30 °C (86 °F).^[98] At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was −4.4 °C (24 °F) on 13 February 1960, and the highest temperature on record was 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) on 25 May 2024.^[99] Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail.

Snow falls in the city scarcely, although somewhat more often on nearby mountaintops. Throughout its history, the Central Valley of Mexico was accustomed to having several snowfalls per decade (including a period between 1878 and 1895 in which every single year—except 1880—recorded snowfalls^[100]), mostly lake-effect snow. The effects of the draining of Lake Texcoco and global warming have greatly reduced snowfalls after the snow flurries of 12 February 1907.^[101] Since 1908, snow has only fallen three times, snow on 14 February 1920;^[102] snow flurries on 14 March 1940;^[103] and on 12 January 1967, when 8 centimeters (3 in) of snow fell on the city, the most on record.^[104] The 1967 snowstorm coincided with the operation of Deep Drainage System that resulted in the total draining of what was left of Lake Texcoco.^[100]^[105] After the disappearance of Lake Texcoco, snow has never fallen again over Mexico City.^[100] The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems. The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around the metropolitan area.^[106]

The area receives about 820 millimeters (32 in) of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from May through October with little or no precipitation for the remainder of the year.^[80] The area has two main seasons. The wet humid summer runs from May to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, the wettest month being July. The cool sunny winter runs from November to April, when the air is relatively drier, the driest month being December. This season is subdivided into a cold winter period and a warm spring period. The cold period spans from November to February, when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry. The warm period extends from March to May when subtropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain to form.^[107]

Climate data for Mexico City (Tacubaya), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1877–2024^[108]
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	28.2 (82.8)	30.8 (87.4)	32.9 (91.2)	34.2 (93.6)	34.7 (94.5)	33.8 (92.8)	29.6 (85.3)	29.4 (84.9)	28.6 (83.5)	29.2 (84.6)	31.5 (88.7)	29.4 (84.9)	34.7 (94.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	22.3 (72.1)	24.2 (75.6)	26.0 (78.8)	27.3 (81.1)	27.1 (80.8)	25.7 (78.3)	24.4 (75.9)	24.5 (76.1)	23.6 (74.5)	23.3 (73.9)	22.7 (72.9)	22.3 (72.1)	24.5 (76.1)
Daily mean °C (°F)	15.7 (60.3)	17.1 (62.8)	18.9 (66.0)	20.4 (68.7)	20.9 (69.6)	19.9 (67.8)	18.8 (65.8)	19.1 (66.4)	18.6 (65.5)	18.0 (64.4)	16.4 (61.5)	15.5 (59.9)	18.3 (64.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	8.4 (47.1)	9.4 (48.9)	11.1 (52.0)	13.0 (55.4)	13.7 (56.7)	13.8 (56.8)	13.0 (55.4)	13.1 (55.6)	13.1 (55.6)	11.8 (53.2)	9.8 (49.6)	8.4 (47.1)	11.5 (52.7)
Record low °C (°F)	−4.2 (24.4)	−4.4 (24.1)	−4.0 (24.8)	−0.6 (30.9)	3.7 (38.7)	0.0 (32.0)	1.0 (33.8)	1.0 (33.8)	1.0 (33.8)	0.0 (32.0)	−3.0 (26.6)	−3.0 (26.6)	−4.4 (24.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	12.5 (0.49)	5.9 (0.23)	11.7 (0.46)	24.9 (0.98)	62.5 (2.46)	137.1 (5.40)	177.1 (6.97)	175.1 (6.89)	160.2 (6.31)	71.2 (2.80)	17.6 (0.69)	5.0 (0.20)	860.8 (33.89)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	1.9	1.2	2.2	4.3	8.2	13.1	17.2	16.9	14.4	7.2	2.0	0.6	89.2
Average relative humidity (%)	54.0	48.0	43.5	45.2	52.8	63.7	69.6	69.2	69.9	64.0	57.1	55.3	57.7
Mean monthly sunshine hours	233.4	232.5	262.3	238.6	232.2	180.9	178.6	176.9	148.3	190.9	224.4	226.9	2,525.8
Source 1: Servicio Meteorologico Nacional^[109]^[110]
Source 2: World Meteorological Organization (humidity and sun 1981–2010)^[111]

Demographics

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±%
1950	3,365,081	—
1960	5,479,184	+62.8%
1970	8,830,947	+61.2%
1980	13,027,620	+47.5%
1990	15,642,318	+20.1%
2000	18,457,027	+18.0%
2010	20,136,681	+9.1%
2019	21,671,908	+7.6%
for Mexico City Agglomeration:^[112]

Historically, and since Pre-Columbian times, the Valley of Anahuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico. When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today's Cuauhtémoc borough. At the beginning of the 20th century, the elites^{[clarification needed]} began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation. According to the 1921 census, 54.78% of the city's population was considered Mestizo (Indigenous mixed with European), 22.79% considered European, and 18.74% considered Indigenous.^[113]^{[failed verification]}

Up to the 1990s, the Federal District was the most populous federal entity in Mexico, but since then, its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million. The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the city proper to 59 municipalities of the State of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo.^[114] With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008),^[115] it is one of the most populous conurbations in the world. Nonetheless, the annual rate of growth of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City is much lower than that of other large urban agglomerations in Mexico,^[116] a phenomenon most likely attributable to the environmental policy of decentralization. The net migration rate of Mexico City from 1995 to 2000 was negative.^[117]

Metropolitan area

The metropolitan area, Greater Mexico City ('Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México' or 'ZMVM' in Spanish) consists of Mexico City itself plus 60 municipalities in the State of Mexico and one in Hidalgo state. With a population of 21,804,515 (2020 census), Greater Mexico City is both the biggest and the densest metropolitan area in the country. Of the ca. 21.8 million, 9.2 million live in Mexico City proper^[8] and 12.4 million in the State of Mexico (ca. 75% of the state's population), including the municipalities of:^[8]

Ecatepec de Morelos (pop. 1,645,352)
Nezahualcóyotl (pop. 1,077,208)
Naucalpan (pop. 834,434)
Chimalhuacán (pop. 705,193)
Tlalnepantla de Baz (pop. 672,202)

Megalopolis

Greater Mexico City, in turn, forms part of an even larger megalopolis officially known as the Corona regional del centro de México (Mexico City megalopolis), with a population of 33.4 million, more than one quarter of the country's population according to the 2020 census. The megalopolis as defined by the Environmental Commission of the Megalopolis (CAMe) covers Mexico City and the states of Mexico, Hidalgo, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Morelos, and since 2019, Querétaro,^[118] thus encompassing the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Puebla, Querétaro, Toluca, Cuernavaca, Pachuca, and others.^[119]

Growth

Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country until the late 1980s. Since then, government policies have supported decentralization with the aim of reducing pollution in Greater Mexico City. While still growing, the annual rate of growth has decreased and is lower than that of Greater Guadalajara and Greater Monterrey.^[116]

The net migration rate of Mexico City proper from 1995 to 2000 was negative,^[120] which implies that residents are moving to the suburbs of the metropolitan area, or to other states of Mexico. In addition, some inner suburbs are losing population to outer suburbs, indicating the continuing expansion of Greater Mexico City.

Panorama of Mexico City from Torre Latinoamericana

Religion

The majority (82%) of the residents in Mexico City are Catholic, slightly lower than the 2010 census national percentage of 87%, making it the largest Christian denomination, though it has been decreasing over the last decades.^[121] Many other religions and philosophies are also practiced in the city: many different types of Protestant groups, different types of Jewish communities, Buddhist, Islamic and other spiritual and philosophical groups. There are also growing^[122] numbers of irreligious people, whether agnostic or atheist. The patron saint of Mexico City is Saint Philip of Jesus, a Mexican Catholic missionary who became one of the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan.^[123]

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico is the largest archdiocese in the world.^[124] There are two Catholic cathedrals in the city, the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral and the Iztapalapa Cathedral, and three former Catholic churches who are now the cathedrals of other rites, the San José de Gracia Cathedral (Anglican church), the Porta Coeli Cathedral (Melkite Greek Catholic church) and the Valvanera Cathedral (Maronite church).

Ethnic groups

Representing around 18.74% of the city's population, indigenous peoples from different areas of Mexico have migrated to the capital in search of better economic opportunities. Nahuatl, Otomi, Mixtec, Zapotec and Mazahua are the indigenous languages with the greatest number of speakers in Mexico City.^[125] According to the 2020 Census, 2.03% of Mexico City's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.^[126]

Additionally, Mexico City is home to large communities of expatriates and immigrants from the rest of North America (U.S. and Canada), from South America (mainly from Argentina and Colombia, but also from Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela), from Central America and the Caribbean (mainly from Cuba, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti and Honduras); from Europe (mainly from Spain, Germany and Switzerland, but also from Czech Republic, Hungary, France, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and Romania),^[127]^[128] and from the Arab world (mostly from Lebanon, and other countries like Syria and Egypt).^[129]

Mexico City is home to the largest population of Americans living outside the United States. Estimates are as high as 700,000 Americans living in Mexico City, while in 1999 the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs estimated over 440,000 Americans lived in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.^[130]^[131]

Health

Mexico City is home to some of the best private hospitals in the country, including Hospital Ángeles, Hospital ABC and Médica Sur. The national public healthcare institution for private-sector employees, IMSS, has its largest facilities in Mexico City—including the National Medical Center and the La Raza Medical Center—and has an annual budget of over 6 billion pesos. The IMSS and other public health institutions, including the ISSSTE (Public Sector Employees' Social Security Institute) and the National Health Ministry (SSA) maintain large specialty facilities in the city. These include the National Institutes of Cardiology, Nutrition, Psychiatry, Oncology, Pediatrics, Rehabilitation, among others.

Education

Among its many public and private schools (K–13), the city offers multi-cultural, multi-lingual and international schools attended by Mexican and foreign students. Best known are the Colegio Alemán (German school with three main campuses), the Liceo Mexicano Japonés (Japanese), the Centro Cultural Coreano en México (Korean), the Lycée Franco-Mexicain (French), the American School, The Westhill Institute (American School), the Edron Academy and the Greengates School (British). Mexico City joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2015.^[132]

In the Plaza de las Tres Culturas is the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco that is recognized for being the first and oldest European school of higher learning in the Americas^[133] and the first major school of interpreters and translators in the New World.^[134] Other, the now-defunct Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico is considered the father of the UNAM, and it was located in the city and was the third oldest university in the Americas.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), located in Mexico City, is the largest university on the continent, with more than 300,000 students from all backgrounds. Three Nobel laureates, several Mexican entrepreneurs and most of Mexico's modern-day presidents are among its former students. UNAM conducts 50% of Mexico's scientific research and has presence all across the country with satellite campuses, observatories and research centers. UNAM ranked 74th in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by Times Higher Education (then called Times Higher Education Supplement) in 2006,^[136] making it the highest ranked Spanish-speaking university in the world. The sprawling main campus of the university, known as Ciudad Universitaria, was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.^[135]

The second largest higher-education institution is the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), which includes among many other relevant centers the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (Cinvestav), where varied high-level scientific and technological research is done. Other major higher-education institutions in the city include the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (3 campuses), the Universidad Panamericana (UP), the Universidad La Salle, the Universidad Intercontinental (UIC), the Universidad del Valle de México (UVM), the Universidad Anáhuac, Simón Bolívar University (USB), the Universidad Intercontinental (UIC), the Alliant International University, the Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México (Colmex), Escuela Libre de Derecho and the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, (CIDE). In addition, the prestigious University of California maintains a campus known as "Casa de California" in the city.^[137] The Universidad Tecnológica de México is also in Mexico City.

Politics

Political structure

The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of 31 January 1824, and the Federal Constitution of 4 October 1824,^[138] fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.^[139]

Due in large part to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country's population and history, even though Queretaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on 18 November 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.^[140]

In 1854 president Antonio López de Santa Anna enlarged the area of Mexico City almost eightfold from the original 220 to 1,700 km² (80 to 660 sq mi), annexing the rural and mountainous areas to secure the strategic mountain passes to the south and southwest to protect the city in event of a foreign invasion. (The Mexican–American War had just been fought.) The last changes to the limits of Mexico City were made between 1898 and 1902, reducing the area to the current 1,479 km² (571 sq mi) by adjusting the southern border with the state of Morelos. By that time, the total number of municipalities within Mexico City was twenty-two. In 1941, the General Anaya borough was merged with the Central Department, which was then renamed "Mexico City" (thus reviving the name but not the autonomous municipality). From 1941 to 1970, the Federal District comprised twelve delegaciones and Mexico City. In 1970, Mexico City was split into four different delegaciones: Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo, Venustiano Carranza and Benito Juárez, increasing the number of delegaciones to 16. Since then, the whole Federal District, whose delegaciones had by then almost formed a single urban area, began to be considered de facto a synonym of Mexico City.^[141]

The lack of a de jure stipulation left a legal vacuum that led to a number of sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other or if the latter had ceased to exist altogether. In 1993, the situation was solved by an amendment to the 44th article of the Constitution of Mexico; Mexico City and the Federal District were stated to be the same entity. The amendment was later introduced into the second article of the Statute of Government of the Federal District.^[141]

On 29 January 2016, Mexico City ceased to be the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.), and was officially renamed "Ciudad de México" (or "CDMX").^[32] On that date, Mexico City began a transition to becoming the country's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. It will have its own constitution and its legislature, and its delegaciones will now be headed by mayors.^[32] Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as it is the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, or the capital of the country has to be relocated elsewhere.^[34]

In response to the demands, Mexico City received a greater degree of autonomy, with the 1987 elaboration the first Statute of Government (Estatuto de Gobierno) and the creation of an assembly of representatives.^[142]^{: 149–150} The city has a Statute of Government, and as of its ratification on 31 January 2017, a constitution,^[143]^[144] similar to the states of the Union. As part of the recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally; it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly. Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the city government.^[145]

The politics pursued by the administrations of heads of government in Mexico City at the end of the 20th century have usually been more liberal than those of the rest of the country,^[146]^[147] whether with the support of the federal government, as was the case with the approval of several comprehensive environmental laws in the 1980s, or by laws that were since approved by the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly expanded provisions on abortions, becoming the first federal entity to expand abortion in Mexico beyond cases of rape and economic reasons, to permit it at the choice of the mother before the 12th week of pregnancy.^[148] In December 2009, the then Federal District became the first city in Latin America and one of very few in the world to legalize same-sex marriage.^[149]

Boroughs and neighborhoods

After the political reforms in 2016, the city is divided for administrative purposes into 16 boroughs (demarcaciones territoriales, colloquially alcaldías), formerly called delegaciones. While they are not fully equivalent to municipalities, the boroughs have gained significant autonomy.^[150] Formerly appointed by the Federal District's head of government, local authorities were first elected directly by plurality in 2000. From 2016, each borough is headed by a mayor, expanding their local government powers.^[150]

The boroughs of Mexico City with their 2020 populations are:^[151]

1. Álvaro Obregón (pop. 759,137)
2. Azcapotzalco (pop. 432,205)
3. Benito Juárez (pop. 434,153)
4. Coyoacán (pop. 614,447)
5. Cuajimalpa (pop. 217,686)
6. Cuauhtémoc (pop. 545,884)
7. Gustavo A. Madero (pop. 1,173,351)
8. Iztacalco (pop. 404,695)

9. Iztapalapa (pop. 1,835,486)
10. La Magdalena Contreras (pop. 247,622)
11. Miguel Hidalgo (pop. 414,470)
12. Milpa Alta (pop. 152,685)
13. Tláhuac (pop. 392,313)
14. Tlalpan (pop. 699,928)
15. Venustiano Carranza (pop. 443,704)
16. Xochimilco (pop. 442,178)

The Human Development Index report of 2005^[152] shows that there were three boroughs with a very high Human Development Index, 12 with a high HDI value (9 above .85), and one with a medium HDI value (almost high). Benito Juárez borough had the highest HDI of the country (0.9510) followed by Miguel Hidalgo, which came up fourth nationally with an HDI of (0.9189), and Coyoacán was fifth nationally, with an HDI of (0.9169). Cuajimalpa (15th), Cuauhtémoc (23rd), and Azcapotzalco (25th) also had very high values of 0.8994, 0.8922, and 0.8915, respectively.^[152]

In contrast, the boroughs of Xochimilco (172nd), Tláhuac (177th), and Iztapalapa (183rd) presented the lowest HDI values of Mexico City, with values of 0.8481, 0.8473, and 0.8464, respectively, which are still in the global high-HDI range. The only borough that did not have a high HDI was that of rural Milpa Alta, which had a "medium" HDI of 0.7984, far below those of all the other boroughs (627th nationally, the rest being in the top 200). Mexico City's HDI for the 2005 report was 0.9012 (very high), and its 2010 value of 0.9225 (very high), or (by newer methodology) 0.8307, was Mexico's highest.^[152]

Law enforcement

Federal Police headquarters in Mexico City

The Secretariat of Public Security of Mexico City (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública de la Ciudad de México – SSP) manages a combined force of over 90,000 officers in Mexico City. The SSP is charged with maintaining public order and safety in the heart of Mexico City. The historic district is also roamed by tourist police, aiming to orient and serve tourists. These horse-mounted agents dress in traditional uniforms. The investigative Judicial Police of Mexico City (Policía Judicial de la Ciudad de México – PJCDMX) is organized under the Office of the Attorney General of Mexico City (the Procuraduría General de Justicia de la Ciudad de México). The PGJCDMX maintains 16 precincts (delegaciones) with an estimated 3,500 judicial police, 1,100 investigating agents for prosecuting attorneys (agentes del ministerio público), and nearly 1,000 criminology experts or specialists (peritos).

Between 2000 and 2004 an average of 478 crimes were reported each day in Mexico City; however, the actual crime rate is thought to be much higher "since most people are reluctant to report crime".^[153] Under policies enacted by Mayor Marcelo Ebrard between 2009 and 2011, Mexico City underwent a major security upgrade with violent and petty crime rates both falling significantly despite the rise in violent crime in other parts of the country. Some of the policies enacted included the installation of 11,000 security cameras around the city and a very large expansion of the police force. Mexico City has one of the world's highest police officer-to-resident ratios, with one uniformed officer per 100 citizens.^[154] Since 1997 the prison population has increased by more than 500%.^[155] Political scientist Markus-Michael Müller argues that mostly informal street vendors are hit by these measures. He sees punishment "related to the growing politicization of security and crime issues and the resulting criminalization of the people living at the margins of urban society, in particular those who work in the city's informal economy".^[155]

In 2016, the incidence of femicides was 3.2 per 100 000 inhabitants, the national average being 4.2.^[156] A 2015 city government report found that two of three women over the age of 15 in the capital suffered some form of violence.^[157] In addition to street harassment, one of the places where women in Mexico City are subjected to violence is on and around public transport. Annually the Metro of Mexico City receives 300 complaints of sexual harassment.^[158]

International relations

Mexico City is twinned with:^[159]^[160]

Cusco, Peru, 1987
Berlin, Germany, 1993^[161]
Havana, Cuba, 1997
Quito, Ecuador, 1999
Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 1999
San Antonio de los Baños, Cuba, 1999
Cerro (Havana), Cuba, 1999
San José, Costa Rica, 2000
Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2006
Nagoya, Japan, 2007
Los Angeles, United States, 2007
Cádiz, Spain, 2009
Beijing, China, 2009
Istanbul, Turkey, 2010
Kuwait City, Kuwait, 2011
Chicago, United States^[162]

Economy

Mexico City is one of the most important economic hubs in Latin America. The city proper produces 15.8% of the country's gross domestic product.^[164] In 2002, Mexico City had a Human Development Index score of 0.915,^[165] identical to that of South Korea. In 2007, residents in the top twelve percent of GDP per capita holders in the city had a mean disposable income of US$98,517. The high spending power of Mexico City inhabitants makes the city attractive for companies offering prestige and luxury goods. According to a 2009 study conducted by PwC, Mexico City had a GDP of $390 billion, ranking it as the eighth richest city in the world and the richest in Latin America.^[166] In 2009, Mexico City alone would rank as the 30th largest economy in the world.^[167]

Mexico City is the greatest contributor to the country's industrial GDP (15.8%) and also the greatest contributor to the country's GDP in the service sector (25.3%). Due to the limited non-urbanized space at the south—most of which is protected through environmental laws—the contribution of Mexico City in agriculture is the smallest of all federal entities in the country.^[164] The economic reforms of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari had a tremendous effect on the city, as a number of businesses, including banks and airlines, were privatized. He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This led to decentralization^[168] and a shift in Mexico City's economic base, from manufacturing to services, as most factories moved away to either the State of Mexico, or more commonly to the northern border. By contrast, corporate office buildings set their base in the city.

Mexico City offers an immense and varied consumer retail market, ranging from basic foods to ultra high-end luxury goods. Consumers may buy in fixed indoor markets, in mobile markets (tianguis), from street vendors, from downtown shops in a street dedicated to a certain type of good, in convenience stores and traditional neighborhood stores, in modern supermarkets, in warehouse and membership stores and the shopping centers that they anchor, in department stores, in big-box stores, and in modern shopping malls. In addition, "tianguis" or mobile markets set up shop on streets in many neighborhoods, depending on day of week. Sundays see the largest number of these markets.

The city's main source of fresh produce is the Central de Abasto. This in itself is a self-contained mini-city in Iztapalapa borough covering an area equivalent to several dozen city blocks. The wholesale market supplies most of the city's "mercados", supermarkets and restaurants, as well as people who come to buy the produce for themselves. Tons of fresh produce are trucked in from all over Mexico every day. The principal fish market is known as La Nueva Viga, in the same complex as the Central de Abastos.^[169] The world-renowned market of Tepito occupies 25 blocks, and sells a variety of products. A staple for consumers in the city is the omnipresent "mercado". Every major neighborhood in the city has its own borough-regulated market, often more than one. These are large well-established facilities offering most basic products, such as fresh produce and meat/poultry, dry goods, tortillerías, and many other services such as locksmiths, herbal medicine, hardware goods, sewing implements; and a multitude of stands offering freshly made, home-style cooking and drinks in the tradition of aguas frescas and atole.

Street vendors ply their trade from stalls in the tianguis as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at plazas comerciales, where vendors of a certain "theme" (e.g. stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk.^[170] In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground.^[171] In the center of the city informal street vendors are increasingly targeted by laws and prosecution.^[155] The weekly San Felipe de Jesús Tianguis is reported to be the largest in Latin America.^[172]

The Historic Center of Mexico City is widely known for specialized, often low-cost retailers. Certain blocks or streets are dedicated to shops selling a certain type of merchandise, with areas dedicated to over 40 categories such as home appliances, lamps and electricals, closets and bathrooms, housewares, wedding dresses, jukeboxes, printing, office furniture and safes, books, photography, jewelry, and opticians.^[173]

Santa Fe is one of the centers of greatest economic activity in the city.^[174]

Tourism

Mexico City is a destination for many foreign tourists. The Historic center of Mexico City (Centro Histórico) and the "floating gardens" of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square with its epoch-contrasting Spanish-era Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor ("Major Temple") and modern structures, all within a few steps of one another. (The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables).

The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs-Élysées in Paris. This avenue was designed over the Americas' oldest known major roadway in the 19th century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence. Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange and several corporate headquarters are located. Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends 28.8 km (17.9 mi) and is one of the longest single avenues in the world.

Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone).

Another piece of architecture is the Palacio de Bellas Artes, a white marble theater/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s.

The Plaza de las Tres Culturas, in this square are located the College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, that is the first and oldest European school of higher learning in the Americas,^[133] and the archeological site of the city-state of Tlatelolco, and the shrine and Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites. There is a double-decker bus, known as the "Turibus", that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.

In addition, according to the Secretariat of Tourism, the city has about 170 museums—is among the top ten of cities in the world with highest number of museums^[175]—over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year. Many areas (e.g. Palacio Nacional and the National Institute of Cardiology) have murals painted by Diego Rivera. He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public. The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán. In addition, there are several haciendas that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan, Hacienda de Cortés and the Hacienda de los Morales.

Transportation

Airports

Mexico City International Airport is Mexico City's primary airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX), and serves as the hub of Aeroméxico (Skyteam). Felipe Ángeles International Airport (IATA Airport Code: NLU) is Mexico City's secondary airport, and was opened in 2022, rebuilt from the former Santa Lucía Air Force Base. It is located in Zumpango, State of Mexico, 48.8 kilometres (30 mi) north-northeast of the historic center of Mexico City by car.^[176]

Sistema de Movilidad Integrada

In 2019, the graphic designer Lance Wyman was engaged to create an integrated map of the multimodal public transportation system; he presented a new logo for the Sistema de Movilidad Integrada, describing eight distinct modes of transportation. The head of the government, Claudia Sheinbaum, said the branding would be used for a new single payment card to streamline public transportation fare collection.^[177]

Metro

Mexico City is served by the Mexico City Metro, a 225.9 km (140 mi) metro system, which is the largest in Latin America. The first portions were opened in 1969 and it has expanded to 12 lines with 195 stations, transporting 4.4 million people every day.^[178]

Tren Suburbano

A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the reach of the metro, with one line serving to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, but with future lines planned to serve e.g. Chalco and La Paz.

Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of several Mexico City trolleybus routes and the Xochimilco Light Rail line, both of which are operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos. The central area's last streetcar line (tramway, or tranvía) closed in 1979.

Bus

Mexico City has an extensive bus network, consisting of public buses, bus rapid transit, and trolleybuses.

Roads

Mexico City has a large road network, and relatively high private car usage, estimated at more than 4.5 million in 2016.^[179] There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula ("Today Does Not Run", or "One Day without a Car"), whereby vehicles that have not passed emissions testing are restricted from circulating on certain days according to the ending digit of their license plates, in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion.^[180]^[181]^[182]

Cycling

The Mexico City local government oversees the administration of Ecobici, North America's second-largest bicycle sharing system. Established to promote sustainable urban transportation, Ecobici facilitates convenient access to bicycles for residents and visitors alike. As of September 2013, the system comprised 276 stations strategically positioned across an expansive area extending from the Historic center to Polanco, a prominent district in the city. Within this network, approximately 4,000 bicycles are available for public use, enabling individuals to navigate the metropolitan landscape efficiently and reduce reliance on traditional motorized modes of transportation. Ecobici serves as a model for environmentally conscious urban mobility initiatives, reflecting Mexico City's commitment to fostering sustainable development and enhancing the quality of life for its populace.^[183]^[184]^[185]

Culture

Art

Secular works of art of this period include the equestrian sculpture of Charles IV of Spain, locally known as El Caballito ("The little horse"). This piece, in bronze, was the work of Manuel Tolsá and it has been placed at the Plaza Tolsá, in front of the Palacio de Mineria (Mining Palace). Directly in front of this building is the Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) (the National Museum of Art).

Receptions Hall at the Museo Nacional de Arte

During the 19th century, an important producer of art was the Academia de San Carlos (San Carlos Art Academy), founded during colonial times, and which later became the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (the National School of Arts) including painting, sculpture and graphic design, one of UNAM's art schools. Many of the works produced by the students and faculty of that time are now displayed in the Museo Nacional de San Carlos (National Museum of San Carlos). One of the students, José María Velasco, is considered one of the greatest Mexican landscape painters of the 19th century. Porfirio Díaz's regime sponsored arts, especially those that followed the French school. Popular arts in the form of cartoons and illustrations flourished, e.g. those of José Guadalupe Posada and Manuel Manilla. The permanent collection of the San Carlos Museum also includes paintings by European masters such as Rembrandt, Velázquez, Murillo, and Rubens.

After the Mexican Revolution, an avant-garde artistic movement originated in Mexico City: muralism. Many of the works of muralists José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera are displayed in numerous buildings in the city, most notably at the National Palace and the Palacio de Bellas Artes. Frida Kahlo, wife of Rivera, with a strong nationalist expression, was also one of the most renowned of Mexican painters. Her house has become a museum that displays many of her works.^[186]

The former home of Rivera muse Dolores Olmedo houses the namesake museum. The facility is in Xochimilco borough in southern Mexico City and includes several buildings surrounded by sprawling manicured lawns. It houses a large collection of Rivera and Kahlo paintings and drawings, as well as living Xoloizcuintles (Mexican Hairless Dog). It also regularly hosts small but important temporary exhibits of classical and modern art (e.g. Venetian Masters and Contemporary New York artists).

During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, such as Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue-collar workers find a venue to express their art. Other painters came from abroad, such as Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles. It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme. José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics.

Museums

Mexico City has numerous museums dedicated to art, including Mexican colonial, modern and contemporary art, and international art. The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by Mexican painter Rufino Tamayo. The collection includes pieces by Picasso, Klee, Kandinsky, Warhol and many others, though most of the collection is stored while visiting exhibits are shown. The Museo de Arte Moderno is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, including Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros, Kahlo, Gerzso, Carrington, Tamayo, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art. In southern Mexico City, the Carrillo Gil Museum showcases avant-garde artists, as does the Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo, designed by Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008.

The Museo Soumaya, named after the wife of Mexican magnate Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside of France.^[187] It also has a large collection of Dalí sculptures, and recently began showing pieces in its masters collection including El Greco, Velázquez, Picasso and Canaletto. The museum inaugurated a new futuristic-design facility in 2011 just north of Polanco, while maintaining a smaller facility in Plaza Loreto in southern Mexico City. The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum located on the sprawling grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec. It has the largest private contemporary art collection in Latin America and hosts pieces from its permanent collection as well as traveling exhibits. The Museo de San Ildefonso, housed in the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso in Mexico City's historic downtown district is a 17th-century colonnaded palace housing an art museum that regularly hosts world-class exhibits of Mexican and international art. The Museo Nacional de Arte is also located in a former palace in the historic center. It houses a large collection of pieces by all major Mexican artists of the last 400 years and also hosts visiting exhibits.

Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city, and wrote his 1959 masterpiece volume of poetry Mexico City Blues here. Another American author, William S. Burroughs, also lived in Colonia Roma where he accidentally shot his wife. Most of Mexico City's museums can be visited from Tuesday to Sunday from 10am to 5pm, although some of them have extended schedules, such as the Museum of Anthropology and History, which is open to 7pm. In addition to this, entrance to most museums are free on Sunday. In some cases a modest fee may be charged.^[188]

The Memory and Tolerance Museum, inaugurated in 2011, showcases historical events of discrimination and genocide. Permanent exhibits include those on the Holocaust and other large-scale atrocities. It also houses temporary exhibits; one on Tibet was inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in September 2011.^[189]

Music, theater and entertainment

Mexico City is home to a number of orchestras offering season programs. These include the Mexico City Philharmonic,^[190] which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli; the National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts), a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles; the Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM),^[191] and the Minería Symphony Orchestra,^[192] both of which perform at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap-around concert hall in the western hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976. There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city's musical scene, including the Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the Cuarteto Latinoamericano, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo), the National Polytechnical Symphony and the Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes).

The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music. There are a multitude of venues hosting Spanish and foreign-language performers. These include the 10,000-seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules the Spanish and English-language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world's leading performing arts ensembles, the auditorium also broadcasts grand opera performances from New York's Metropolitan Opera on giant, high definition screens. In 2007 National Auditorium was selected world's best venue by multiple genre media. Other sites for pop-artist performances include the 3,000-seat Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000-seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger 50,000-seat Foro Sol Stadium, where popular international artists perform on a regular basis. The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city. There are numerous venues for smaller musical ensembles and solo performers. These include the Hard Rock Live, Bataclán, Foro Scotiabank, Lunario, Circo Volador and Voilá Acoustique. Recent additions include the 20,000-seat Arena Ciudad de México, the 3,000-seat Pepsi Center World Trade Center, and the 2,500-seat Auditorio Blackberry.

The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts) has several venues for music, theater, dance. UNAM's main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU). The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias,^[193] the Sala Nezahualcóyotl concert hall, several theaters and cinemas, and the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC).^[194] A branch of the National University's CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north-central Mexico City.

The José Vasconcelos Library, a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city. The Papalote Museo del Niño (Kite Children's Museum), which houses the world's largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria, a former amusement park. The theme park Six Flags México (the largest amusement park in Latin America) is located in the Ajusco neighborhood, in Tlalpan borough, southern Mexico City. During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow's Red Square.

The Cineteca Nacional [es] (Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema, to Jewish and LGBT-themed films. Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies. Mexico City has a number of IMAX theaters, providing residents and visitors access to films ranging from documentaries to blockbusters on these large screens.

Cuisine

Once considered plebeian fare, by the 19th century tacos had become a standard of Mexico City's cuisine. Furthermore, as authorities struggled to tax local taquerias, imposing licensing requirements and penalties, they recorded some details of the types of foods being served by these establishments. The most frequent reference was for tacos de barbacoa. Also mentioned are enchiladas, tacos de minero and gorditas, along with oyster shops and fried fish stands. There is evidence of some regional specialties being made available for recent migrants; at least two shops were known to serve pozole, a type of stew similar to hominy that is a staple of Guadalajara, Jalisco.^[195] Mexico City is known for having some of the freshest fish and seafood in Mexico's interior. La Nueva Viga Market is the second largest seafood market in the world after the Tsukiji fish market in Japan.

Mexico City offers a variety of cuisines: restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico's 31 states are available in the city, and the city also has several branches of internationally recognized restaurants. These include Paris' Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow); Nobu, Quintonil, Morimoto; Pámpano, owned by Mexican-raised opera singer Plácido Domingo. There are branches of Japanese restaurant Suntory, Italian restaurant Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton's and The Palm, and Monte Carlo's BeefBar. Three of Lima's Haute restaurants, serving Peruvian cuisine, have locations in Mexico City: La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón.

For the 2023 list of World's 50 Best Restaurants as named by the British magazine Restaurant, Mexico City ranked 13th best with the Mexican avant-garde restaurant Pujol (owned by Mexican chef Enrique Olvera).^[196] Also notable is the Basque-Mexican fusion restaurant Biko (run and co-owned by Bruno Oteiza and Mikel Alonso), which placed outside the list at 59th, but in previous years has ranked within the top 50.^[197] Other that has been placed on the list in 2019 is the restaurant Sud 777 at 58th place.^[198] In 2024, seven restaurants in the city received Michelin stars.^[199] At the other end of the scale are working class pulque bars known as pulquerías, a challenge for tourists to locate and experience.

Media

Mexico City is Mexico's most important hub for the printed media and book publishing industries. Dozens of daily newspapers are published, including El Universal, Excélsior, Reforma and La Jornada. Other major papers include Milenio, Crónica, El Economista and El Financiero.^[200]^[201] Leading magazines include Expansión, Proceso, Poder, as well as dozens of entertainment publications such as Vanidades, Quién, Chilango, TV Notas, and local editions of Vogue, GQ, and Architectural Digest.

It is also a leading center of the advertising industry. Most international ad firms have offices in the city, including Grey, JWT, Leo Burnett, Euro RSCG, BBDO, Ogilvy, Saatchi & Saatchi, and McCann Erickson. Many local firms also compete in the sector, including Alazraki, Olabuenaga/Chemistri, Terán, Augusto Elías, and Clemente Cámara, among others. There are 60 radio stations operating in the city and many local community radio transmission networks.

The two largest media companies in the Spanish-speaking world, Televisa and TV Azteca, are headquartered in Mexico City. Televisa often presents itself as the largest producer of Spanish-language content.^[202] Other local television channels include:

XHDF 1 (Azteca Uno),^[203] XEW 2 (Televisa W),^[204] XHCTMX 3, XHTV 4, XHGC 5, XHTDMX 6, XHIMT 7, XEQ 9, XEIPN 11, XHUNAM 20, XHCDM 21, XEIMT 22, XHTRES 28, XHTVM 40 and XHHCU 45.

Sports

Association football is the country's most popular and most televised franchised sport. Its important venues in Mexico City include the Azteca Stadium, home to the Mexico national football team and giants América and Cruz Azul, which can seat 91,653 fans, making it the biggest stadium in Latin America. The Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria is home to the football club giants Universidad Nacional, with a seating capacity of over 52,000. The Sports City Stadium, which seats 33,042 fans, is near the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Nochebuena neighborhood, and is home to the historical Atlante. América, Cruz Azul and Universidad Nacional are based in Mexico City and play in the First Division; they are also part, with Guadalajara-based giants Club Deportivo Guadalajara, of Mexico's traditional "Big Four". The city's three derbies are the "Clásico Joven", played between América and Cruz Azul, the capital's two most popular and successful teams; the "Clásico Capitalino", between América and Universidad Nacional, and the "Clásico Metropolitano", between Cruz Azul and Universidad Nacional.

The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and Azteca Stadium is the first stadium in World Cup history to host the final twice. The city will be one of the host cities for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.^[205] Mexico City is the first Latin American city to host the Olympic Games, having held the Summer Olympics in 1968, winning bids against Buenos Aires, Lyon and Detroit. The city hosted the 1955 and 1975 Pan American Games, the latter after Santiago and São Paulo withdrew. The ICF Flatwater Racing World Championships were hosted here in 1974 and 1994. Lucha libre is a Mexican style of wrestling, and is one of the more popular sports throughout the country. The main venues in the city are Arena México and Arena Coliseo.

The Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez is the main venue for motorsport, and hosts the Formula 1 Mexican Grand Prix since its return to the sport in 2015, the event being held in the past from 1962 to 1970, and again from 1986 to 1992. From 1980 to 1981 and again from 2002 to 2007, the circuit hosted the Champ Car World Series Gran Premio de México. Beginning in 2005, the NASCAR Nationwide Series ran the Telcel-Motorola México 200. 2005 also marked the first running of the Mexico City 250 by the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series. Both races were removed from their series' schedules for 2009.

Baseball is another sport played professionally in the city. Mexico City is home of the Mexico City Red Devils of the Mexican League, which is considered a Triple-A league by Major League Baseball. The Devils play their home games at Estadio Alfredo Harp Helú^[206] designed by international Mexican-American architect FGP Atelier Founder Francisco Gonzalez Pulido in collaboration with local architect Taller ADG. Mexico City has some 10 Little Leagues for young baseball players. In 2005, Mexico City became the first city to host an NFL regular season game outside of the United States, at the Azteca Stadium. The crowd of 103,467 people attending this game was the largest ever for a regular season game in NFL history until 2009.^[207]

The city has also hosted several NBA pre-season games and has hosted international basketball's FIBA Americas Championship, along with north-of-the-border Major League Baseball exhibition games at Foro Sol. In 2017, NBA commissioner Adam Silver expressed interest in placing an NBA G League expansion team in Mexico City as early as 2018. This came to fruition on 12 December 2019 when commissioner Silver announced at a press conference in Mexico City Arena that LNBP team, Capitanes de Ciudad de México will be joining the G League in the 2020–21 season on a five-year agreement.

Other sports facilities in Mexico City are the Palacio de los Deportes indoor arena, Francisco Márquez Olympic Swimming Pool, the Hipódromo de Las Américas, the Agustin Melgar Olympic Velodrome, and venues for equestrianism and horse racing, ice hockey, rugby, American-style football, baseball, and basketball. Bullfighting takes place every Sunday during bullfighting season at the 50,000-seat Plaza México, the world's largest bullring. Mexico City's golf courses have hosted Women's LPGA action, and two Men's Golf World Cups. Courses throughout the city are available as private as well as public venues.

Azteca Stadium

University Olympic Stadium

Sports City Stadium

Alfredo Harp Helú Stadium

Notes

^
- Mexihco Hueyaltepetl (Central Nahuatl)
- U noj kaajil México (Yucatec Maya)
- 'Monda (Otomian languages)
^ In Peninsular Spanish, the spelling variant Méjico, is also used alongside México. According to the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas by the Royal Spanish Academy and the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language, the spelling version with J is correct, however, the spelling with X is recommended, as it is the one is used in Mexican Spanish.
^ Spanish: Ciudad de México, lit. 'City of Mexico',[b][11] locally [sjuˈða(ð) ðe ˈmexiko] ; abbr.: CDMX; Central Nahuatl: Mexihco Hueyaltepetl,[12] Nahuatl pronunciation: [meːˈʃiʔko wejaːlˈtepeːt͡ɬ];[13] Otomi: 'Monda
^ Quito, the capital city of Ecuador, is the other such city.

References

^ "Presenta gobierno capitalino Himno de la Ciudad de México, primero en la historia en ser compuesto por una mujer". Secretariat of Culture of Mexico City (in Spanish). 20 June 2024. Archived from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
^ "Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores – México". Sre.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "De la Colonia / 13 agosto de 1521: rendición de México-Tenochtitlan". Redescolar.ilce.edu.mx. Archived from the original on 1 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "Conmemora la SecretarĂa de Cultura el 185 Aniversario del Decreto de CreaciĂłn del Distrito Federal". Cultura.df.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ Agren, David (29 January 2015). "Mexico City officially changes its name to – Mexico City". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
^ "Resumen". Cuentame INEGI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
^ "Relieve". Cuentame INEGI. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Censo Población y Vivienda 2020". inegi.org.mx (in Spanish). INEGI. 25 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ Citibanamex (13 June 2023). "Indicadores Regionales de Actividad Económica 2023" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
^ "Mexico - Sub-national HDI". Global Data Lab. Radboud University Institute for Management Research. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
^ "México" in Diccionario panhispánico de dudas by Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language, Madrid: Santillana. 2005. ISBN 978-8-429-40623-8.
^ "IHUEYTLANAHUATIL MEXIHCO HUEYALTEPETL" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^ Maya: u noj kaajil México "U NOJ A'ALAMAJT'AANIL U NOJ KAAJIL MÉXICO" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^ "Artículo 44" (PDF). Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
^ Agren, David (29 January 2016). "Mexico City officially changes its name to – Mexico City". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
^ "The 2008 Global Cities Index". Foreign Policy. 2008. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
^ Blouet, Brian W.; Blouet, Olwyn M. (2009). OECD Reviews of Regional Innovation OECD Reviews of Regional Innovation: 15 Mexican States 2009. OECD Publishing. pp. 418, 299. ISBN 978-92-64-06012-8.
^ United Nations (2019). "World Urbanization Prospects 2018" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
^ Global MetroMonitor | Brookings Institution Archived 5 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Brookings.edu. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
^ "Key Economic Facts and Figures". Mexico City Experience. Archived from the original on 26 April 2010. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
^ Parish Flannery, Nathaniel (23 December 2013). "Mexico City Is Focusing on Tech Sector Development". Forbes. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
^ ^a ^b Government of the Federal District. "Historia de la Ciudad de México" [History of Mexico City]. df.gob.mx (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
^ United Nations. "Mexico City, Mexico" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2 May 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
^ Daniel C. Schechter, Josephine Quintero. Lonely Planet Mexico City, City Guide [With Pullout Map]. Third Edition. Lonely Planet, 2008. p. 288 (pp. 20–21). ISBN 978-1-74059-182-9.
^ Gallo, Rubén (6 April 2021). "A Chronicle of Mexico City and Its Multitudes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Lopez Torregrosa, Luisita (27 April 2017). "My Mexico City is everyone's now". The Seattle Times. Mexico City. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ "Mexico's Quintana Roo state decriminalises abortion". Al Jazeera. 26 October 2022. Archived from the original on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Linares, Albinson (21 October 2021). "These people want to die. Will their countries allow euthanasia?". NBC News. Telemundo. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Malkin, Elisabeth (21 July 2009). "Express Route to Divorce Has Familiar Delays". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ "Mexico City legalises same-sex marriage". The Guardian. Associated Press. 22 December 2009. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
^ Hogue, Tom (25 June 2023). "Mexico City holds mass celebration for same-sex weddings, gender ID changes". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 November 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Richards, Tony (30 January 2016). "Federal District is now officially Mexico City: The change brings more autonomy for the country's capital". Mexico News Daily. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
^ "From DF to CDMX, Mexico City changes name, status". Inquirer News. Agence France-Presse. 30 January 2016. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022.
^ ^a ^b "La Ciudad de México no será estado, sino entidad federal autónoma". Diario de México (in Spanish). 28 January 2016. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
^ Diccionario Porrúa. Historia, Biografía y Geografía de México, Editorial Porrúa, S.A., Mexico City, Fifth Edition, 1986, Vol. II, page 1638.
^ Alberto Dallal. "La Ciudad de México: el espectáculo más grande del mundo". Electronic magazine Imágenes of the Institute of Aesthetic Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
^ Ramón Gutiérrez del Mazo (Intendent of Mexico: 1811–1821) (1811). La muy noble, muy leal, insigne é imperial ciudad de México, cabeza de los reynos y provincias de Nueva España y en si nombre los señores presidente y vocales que componen la Real Junta de Policía de esta Córte con anuencia del Exmo. Sr. virey de este reyno hacemos saber al piadoso vecindario lo que sigue [The very noble, very loyal, distinguished and imperial city of Mexico, head of the kingdoms and provinces of New Spain and in its name the sirs president and members of the Royal Police Board of this Court with the consent of the Excellency Sr. Viceroy of this kingdom let the pious neighborhood know what's coming next]. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2020.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ 1994 Oxford Spanish-English Dictionary
^ ^a ^b Lida 2008, p. 15.
^ Lida 2008, p. 16.
^ The evidence consists of a burial in the first case, and of lithic flakes associated with remains of extinct fauna. They were estimated to be about 10 000 years old. Cfr. Acosta Ochoa, 2007: 9.
^ Gonzalez, Silvia; Jiménez-López, José Concepción; Hedges, Robert; Huddart, David; Ohman, James C; Turner, Alan; Pompa y Padilla, José Antonio (March 2003). "Earliest humans in the Americas: new evidence from México". Journal of Human Evolution. 44 (3): 381. Bibcode:2003JHumE..44..379.. doi:10.1016/s0047-2484(03)00004-6. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12674097. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
^ "El ADN de La Mujer del Peñón confirma el origen asiático del hombre americano". www.cronica.com.mx. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
^ Karen Mutton (2011). Scattered Skeleton in Our Closet. Adventures Unlimited Press. ISBN 978-1-935487-41-8. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
^ David Epstein (2 January 2005). "First Americans May Have Come From Australia". Discover. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mexico City" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 346. The City of Mexico dates, traditionally, from the year 1325 or 1327
^ Frances F. Berdan, The Aztecs of Mexico: An Imperial Society, New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston 1982, pp. 10–14.
^ ^a ^b Frances F. Berdan, The Aztecs of Mexico: An Imperial Society, New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston 1982, p. 14.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Historia de la Ciudad de México" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Marroqui, Jose Maria (1969). La Ciudad de Mexico. Mexico City: Ayuntamiento del Distrito Federal. pp. 21–25.
^ "Conquistadors – Cortés. November 1519, The Most Beautiful Thing in the World". PBS. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "Conquistadors – Cortés. November, 1519 – Montezuma Arrested". PBS. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "Conquistadors – Cortés. June 1520 – Massacre at Tenochtitlán". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "Conquistadors – Cortés. December 1520 – Siege, Starvation & Smallpox". PBS. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ "Conquistadors – Cortés. The Last Stand: An Aztec Iliad". PBS. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Alvarez, Jose Rogelio (2000). "Mexico, Ciudad de". Enciclopedia de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. 9. Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. 5242–5260.
^ Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Motolinia's History of the Indians of New Spain, translated and edited by Elizabeth Adnros Foster. Wesport: Greenwood Press, (1950) 1973, pp. 41–42
^ Edmundo O'Gorman, Reflexiones sobre la distribución urbana coloinal de la ciudad de México, Mexico 1938, pp. 16ff.
^ Magnus Mörner and Charles Gibson, "Diego Muñoz Camargo and the Segregation Policy of the Spanish Crown," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 42, pp. 558ff.
^ Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson 2003, pp. 246–249.
^ Noble David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. New York: Cambridge University Press 1998.
^ Hamnett, Brian R. (1998). Concise History of Mexico. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58120-2.
^ ^a ^b Ladd, Doris M (1998). Artes deMexico Palacios de la Nueva España The Mexican Nobility. Mexico City: Artes de Mexico y del Mundo. pp. 84–86. ISBN 978-968-6533-61-3.
^ "Don Agustín de Iturbide". Archived from the original on 11 April 2004. Retrieved 20 October 2008.
^ Weil, Thomas E. (1 January 1991). "Mexico: Chapter 3B. Evolution of a Nation". Countries of the World. Bureau Development, Inc.
^ Mody, Ashoka (1996). "Infrastructure Delivery". Countries of the World. World Bank Publications. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-8213-3520-8.
^ "The Battle of Cerro Gordo". PBS. Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
^ "The Storming of Chapultepec (General Pillow's Attack)". PBS. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
^ Richard Griswold del Castillo. "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo". PBS. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
^ "Album, Mexican Revolution". Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
^ "La Decena Trágica, febrero de 1913" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
^ LaRosa, Michael J., ed. (2005). Atlas and Survey of Latin American History. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. pp. 118–125. ISBN 9780765615978.
^ "Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
^ National Research Council Staff (1995). Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. p. 4.
^ Doyle, Kate (29 May 2023). "TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968". National Security Archive. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
^ Campus, Yunnven (19 September 2005). "A 20 años del sismo del 85" (in Spanish). Mexico City: Televisa. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2008.
^ Haber, Paul Lawrence (1995). "Earthquake of 1985". Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Frances Ltd. pp. 179–184.
^ ^a ^b ^c Diccionario Porrua de Historia, Biografia y Geografia de Mexico 6th ed. – Mexico, Cuenca de (in Spanish). Vol. 3. Mexico City: Editorial Porrua. 1995. p. 2238. ISBN 978-968-452-907-6.
^ "Mexico City: Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable Management of Urban Water Resources". December 2004. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d National Research Council Staff (1995). Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-05245-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c Yip, Maricela; Madl, Pierre (16 April 2002). "Air Pollution in Mexico City". University of Salzburg, Austria. p. 16. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
^ O’Hanlon, L. (22 April 2021). "The Looming Crisis of Sinking Ground in Mexico City". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022. The ground in Mexico City is sinking at a rate of almost 50 centimeters (20 inches) per year...
^ New York Times: "Mexico City, Parched and Sinking, Faces a Water Crisis" By Michael Kimmelman 17 February 2017
^ Cooke, Julia (27 February 2008). "Los Angeles and Mexico City: A Tale of Two Cities". laweekly.com. Archived from the original on 20 September 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
^ ^a ^b "Coming up for air". Harvard Gazette. 28 October 2014. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Mexico City cleans up its reputation for smog". 26 December 2008. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^ ^a ^b Larry Rother (13 December 1987). "Chapultepec Park: Mexico in Microcosm". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
^ "Historia del Bosque de Chapultepec" [History of the Forest of Chapultepec] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Dirección del Bosque de Chapultepec. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010.
^ Meade, Julie (2016). Moon Mexico City. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 9781631214097. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Just west of Bellas Artes, the Alameda Central is the largest green space in the center of the city and the oldest public park in the Americas.
^ "Three Kings Day in Mexico, a holiday in flux". LA Times Blogs – La Plaza. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Consider the scene this week at the Alameda Central, the downtown Mexico City park historians describe as the oldest planned urban green space in the Americas.
^ Lidia Arista (16 January 2011). "5 parques representativos del DF" [5 iconic parks of Mexico City]. El Universal. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
^ "Historia del zoológico". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Colección animal". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Historia del zoológico". 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Colección animal". 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Historia del zoológico". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Colección animal". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ "Average Weather for Mexico City". Weather Spark. Archived from the original on 5 November 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
^ "CDMX rompe por segundo día consecutivo récord de calor; alcanza los 34.7° celsius". El Economista (in Spanish). 25 May 2024. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jáuregui Ostos, Ernesto (2000). El clima de la Ciudad de México (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Instituto de Geografía de la UNAM. ISBN 978-968-856-819-4.
^ "Snow in Mexico City". The Baltimore Sun (Baltimore, Maryland USA). 13 February 1907. p. 2.
^ "Snow Falls in Mexico City". The Baltimore Sun (Baltimore, Maryland USA). p. 1.
^ "Snowfall Startles Mexico City". The New York Times. 15 March 1940. p. 3.
^ "6 Die As Snow Storm Covers Mexico City". The New York Times. 12 January 1967. p. 13.
^ Escobar Ohmstede, Antonio (2004). Juan Manuel Pérez Zevallos (ed.). Desastres agrícolas en México: Siglo XIX Tomo 2 (1822–1900) (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica (FCE); Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (CIESAS). ISBN 978-968-16-7188-4.
^ "Program to improve air quality in the Metropolitan zone of the valley of Mexico – 2002. Secretaría del Medio Ambiente del Distrito Federal, SMA (2002) Programa para Mejorar la Calidad del Aire de la Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México, Gobierno del Distrito Federal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2007.
^ Lafregua, J; Gutierrez, A; Aguilar E; Aparicio J; Mejia R; Santillan O; Suarez MA; Preciado M (2003). "Balance hídrico del Valle de Mexico" (PDF). Anuario IMTA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
^ Guzmán, Alejandro (16 April 2024). "Ciudad de México rompe récord de temperatura con 34,2 grados: ¿qué es una onda de calor, cómo se produce y cuánto durará la actual?". El País (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
^ "Estado de Ciudad de Mexico-Estacion: Tacubaya Central (OBS)". Normales Climatologicas 1991–2020 (in Spanish). Servicio Meteorológico Nacional. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
^ "Extreme Temperatures and Precipitation for Tacubaya Central (OBS)" (in Spanish). Servicio Meteorológico Nacional. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010". World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
^ "Mexico City Population". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
^ "The Hispanic Experience – Indigenous Identity in Mexico". Houstonculture.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Delimitación de las zonas metropolitanas de México 2005. Retrieved 27 September 2008. Archived 6 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Proyecciones de la Población de México 2005–2050". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2007. Total projected population of Mexico City and the 60 other municipalities of Zona metropolitana del Valle de México, as defined in 2005. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
^ ^a ^b Síntesis de Resultados del Conteo 2005 Archived 9 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine INEGI
^ "Tasa de emigración, inmigración y migración neta de las entidades federativas". Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Querétaro ya será parte de la megalópolis ('Querétaro will now be part of the megalopolis')". Diario de Querétaro. 25 October 2019. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
^ Comisión Ambiental de la Megalópolis (September 2018). "La megalópolis de la ZMVM (The Greater Mexico City Megalopolis)". Gobierno de Mexico (Government of Mexico) (in Spanish). Comisión Ambiental de la Megalópolis. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
^ "Tasa de emigración, inmigración y migración neta de las entidades federativas". Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
^ Volumen y porcentaje de la población de 5 y más años católica por entidad federativa, 2010 Archived 7 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine INEGI
^ Mora Duro, Carlos Nazario (2019). "Agnostics and Atheists in Mexico". In Gooren, Henri (ed.). Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 66–70. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27078-4_369. ISBN 978-3-319-27077-7. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
^ Ronald J. Morgan, Spanish American Saints and the Rhetoric of Identity, 1600–1810. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2002, pp. 143–169
^ Agren, David (30 September 2019). "Three new dioceses carved out of Archdiocese of Mexico". Crux. Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
^ Población de 5 y más años hablante de lengua indígena por principales lenguas, 2005 Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine INEGI
^ "Panorama sociodemográfico de México". www.inegi.org.mx. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
^ "Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Los extranjeros en México, la inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ Carl Franz & Lorena Havens. "How Many Americans Live in Mexico?". Peoplesguide.com. Archived from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Private American Citizens Residing Abroad". Overseasdigest.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Mexico City, Mexico - UNESCO Learning City Awardee 2015 | UIL". uil.unesco.org. 5 July 2015. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
^ ^a ^b Steck; Francis Borgia (1936). The first college in America: Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Achievement and influence of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Washington DC. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Lourdes Arencibia Rodriguez (27 September 2017). "The Imperial College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco : The First School of Translators and Interpreters in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America1". The Imperial College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Regards sur la traduction | Perspectives on Translation. Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa | University of Ottawa Press. pp. 263–275. ISBN 9780776626208. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
^ ^a ^b Tavares Lopez, Edgar (February 2008). "Ciudad Universitaria". México Desconocido. 372: 90–92.
^ "Times Higher Education Supplement, 2006". Eluniversal.com.mx. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "University of California Mexico City". Universityofcalifornia.edu. Archived from the original on June 13, 2011. Retrieved April 17, 2011.
^ "Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States (1824)". Archived from the original on 18 March 2012.
^ Boletín Mexicano de Derecho Comparado Archived 10 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Juridicas.unam.mx. Retrieved on 12 April 2014.
^ Alvarez, Jose Rogelio (2003). "Distrito Federal". Enciclopedia de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. IV. Sabeco International Investment Corp. pp. 2293–2314. ISBN 978-1-56409-063-8.
^ ^a ^b Statute of Government of the Federal District Archived 13 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine
^ Tavera Fenollosa, Ligia (3 March 2016). "Eventful temporality and the unintended outcomes of Mexico's earthquake victims movement". In Rossi, Federico M.; Bülow, Marisa von (eds.). Social Movement Dynamics: New Perspectives on Theory and Research from Latin America. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-05370-5.
^ "Constitución Política de la Ciudad de México" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
^ "Constitución Política de la Ciudad de México" (PDF). 30 January 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
^ "Codigo Financiero Del Distrito Federal*" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ Caistor, Nicholas (2019). Mexico City. London, England: Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781789141108. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
^ "Mexico Bares Its Liberal Side, and More". NPR. 8 May 2007. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
^ "Aprueba ALDF en lo general reforma sobre el aborto". El Universal. 24 April 2007. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007. Retrieved 25 April 2007.
^ "Mexico City legalises same-sex marriage". The Guardian. Mexico City. Associated Press. 22 December 2009. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Constitution of Mexico City" (PDF) (in Spanish). Gobierno de la Ciudad de México. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
^ "Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020 - SCITEL" (in Spanish). INEGI. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Panorama de la entidad (Panorama of the entity)" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2012.
^ "Police say Giuliani helps cut Mexico City crime". San Diego Union-Tribune. 12 May 2004. Archived from the original on 9 June 2004. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
^ "Security central in Mexico City's makeover". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Punishing the informal". Digital Development Debats. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
^ Arturo Páramo (16 November 2016). "Suma la ciudad 39 feminicidios". Excélsior. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ "Mujeres en la capital están luchando contra el acoso desenfrenado". Excélsior. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ "Así se vive el acoso en el Metro de la CDMX". Excélsior. 9 March 2017. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
^ "Acuerdos interinstitucionales registrados por dependencias y municipios de Ciudad de México". sre.gob.mx (in Spanish). Secretaría de relaciones exteriores. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
^ "Ciudades Hermanas de Cusco". aatccusco.com (in Spanish). Asociación de Agencias de Turismo del Cusco. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
^ "Städtepartnerschaft Mexiko-Stadt". berlin.de (in German). 12 September 2023. Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
^ "Mexico City". chicagosistercities.com. Chicago Sister Cities International. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
^ "Mexico City CORPORATE FINANCE". Prudential Private Capital, Prudential Financial. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
^ ^a ^b "Producto interno bruto por entidad federativa. Participación sectorial por entidad federative" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 14 July 2007.
^ "HDR 2006 | Spanish | Human Development Reports (HDR) | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)". Hdr.undp.org. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ PricewaterhouseCoopers (11 February 2009). "Emerging market city economies set to rise rapidly in global GDP rankings says PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP". UK Media Centre. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
^ "Emporis". Archived from the original on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ Furness, Charlie (April 2008). "Boomtown". Geographical. 80 (4): 36–45. 0016741X.
^ "Economía reciente, 1990-2005" [Economy] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Borough of Iztapapala. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
^ Sergio Peña (1999). "Informal Markets: Street Vendors in Mexico City" (PDF). Florida State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "Reporte Temático No. 2: Comercio Ambulante" (PDF). Cámara de Diputados (Mexico), Centro de Estudios Sociales y de Opinión Pública. June 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ "Tianguis de la San Felipe: no podrás recorrerlo en un día". Máspormás. 23 January 2017. Archived from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
^ "Calles con vocación" (PDF). Km.cero: 7. November 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
^ Alfonso Valenzuela (2007). "Santa Fé (México): Megaproyectos para una ciudad dividida". Cuadernos Geográficos (in Spanish) (40). University of Granada, Spain: 53–66. ISSN 0210-5462. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
^ "CDMX, una de las urbes con más museos en el mundo". El Universal (Mexico City). 17 May 2016. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
^ "¿Quién es Felipe Ángeles y por qué el aeropuerto se llama así? ("Who was Felipe Angeles and why is the airport called that?")". El Universal (Mexico City). 2 October 2021. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
^ Suárez, Gerardo (15 April 2019). "Presentan imagen para el Sistema de Movilidad Integrada de la CDMX" [Presenting the symbols for the Integrated Mobility System of Mexico City]. El Universal (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "World Metro Figures: Statistics Brief" (PDF). UITP. October 2015. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
^ "¿Cuántos autos circulan en la CDMX diariamente?". El Economista (in Spanish). Notimex. 22 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
^ "Actualización Del Programa Hoy No Circula" [Update of the "Hoy No Circula" Program] (PDF) (in Spanish). Gobierno Del Distrito Federal, Secretaría Del Medio Ambiente, Dirección General De Gestión Ambiental Del Aire, Dirección De Instrumentación De Políticas. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
^ "Mexican Emission Standards based on Federal Tier I Light-duty Vehicles up to 6000 lbs. GVWR" (PDF). meca.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
^ "Programa de Verificación Vehicular. Segundo semestre de 2013" [Vehicle Verification Program. Second semester 2013.] (in Spanish). Gobierno del Distrito Federal, Secretaría del Medio Ambiente. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ Jesús de León Torres (September 2013). "Nuevas estaciones de EcoBici" [New EcoBici stations]. km0 (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
^ "Untitled Document". df.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
^ ""Ciclovía Reforma", Transeunte". Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
^ "The Blue House – Frida Kahlo Museum". www.museofridakahlo.org.mx. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
^ Tuckman, Jo (2 March 2011). "Mexican billionaire's new museum gives The Thinker much to ponder". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2021.
^ "Ciudad de México.- atractivos turísticos". Mexicocity.com.mx. Archived from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "El Dalai Lama inaugura la exposición: Tíbet. Recuerdos de la patria perdida | La Crónica de Hoy". www.cronica.com.mx. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
^ "Mexico City Philharmonic". Archived from the original on 2 December 2008.
^ "Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico". Musicaunam.net. Archived from the original on 22 April 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "Minería Symphony Orchestra". Sinfonicademineria.org. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
^ Dgdc-Unam. "Universum, Museo de las Ciencias". Universum.unam.mx. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ "University Museum of Contemporary Art". Archived from the original on 20 December 2014.
^ Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food. p. 94.
^ Canavan, Hillary Dixler (20 June 2023). "The World's 50 Best Restaurants 2023: The Full List of Winners". Eater. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
^ Restaurant, The World's 50 Best Restaurant Awards: 2014 Archived 21 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^ "The World's 50 Best Restaurants 1–50 2019". theworlds50best.com. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
^ Stone, Sam (15 May 2024). "These Are Mexico's First Michelin-Starred Restaurants, 2024". Bon Appétit. Archived from the original on 23 May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
^ "Publicaciones periódicas en Ciudad de México". Sistema de Información Cultural (in Spanish). Gobierno de Mexico. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
^ "Latin American & Mexican Online News". Research Guides. US: University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries. Archived from the original on 7 March 2020.
^ Becerra, Martín; Mastrini, Guillermo (2017). "Concentración y convergencia de medios en América Latina". Communiquer. 20 (20): 104–120. doi:10.4000/communiquer.2277. hdl:11336/76220. Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
^ "Azteca Uno – Transmisión EN VIVO". aztecauno.com. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
^ TIM, Televisa. "Home". Televisa. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
^ "FIFA announces hosts cities for FIFA World Cup 2026™". Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
^ "Estadio Diablos: la integración comunitaria". México Design (in Mexican Spanish). 5 April 2019. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
^ "NFL regular-season-record crowd of 105,121 sees Giants-Cowboys". NFL.com. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

Sources

Lida, David (2008). First Stop in the New World: Mexico City, the Capital of the 21st Century. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-1-59448-378-3.

External links

Media related to Mexico City at Wikimedia Commons
Geographic data related to Mexico City at OpenStreetMap
Mexico City Government (in English)

[a-1] 
Mexihco Hueyaltepetl (Central Nahuatl)

U noj kaajil México (Yucatec Maya)

'Monda (Otomian languages)

[2] Mexihco Hueyaltepetl (Central Nahuatl)

[3] U noj kaajil México (Yucatec Maya)

[4] 'Monda (Otomian languages)

[12] In Peninsular Spanish, the spelling variant Méjico, is also used alongside México. According to the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas by the Royal Spanish Academy and the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language, the spelling version with J is correct, however, the spelling with X is recommended, as it is the one is used in Mexican Spanish.

[16] Spanish: Ciudad de México, lit. 'City of Mexico',^[b]^[11] locally [sjuˈða(ð) ðe ˈmexiko] ^ⓘ; abbr.: CDMX; Central Nahuatl: Mexihco Hueyaltepetl,^[12] Nahuatl pronunciation: [meːˈʃiʔko wejaːlˈtepeːt͡ɬ];^[13] Otomi: 'Monda

[25] Quito, the capital city of Ecuador, is the other such city.

[2] "Presenta gobierno capitalino Himno de la Ciudad de México, primero en la historia en ser compuesto por una mujer". Secretariat of Culture of Mexico City (in Spanish). 20 June 2024. Archived from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024.

[3] "Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores – México". Sre.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[4] "De la Colonia / 13 agosto de 1521: rendición de México-Tenochtitlan". Redescolar.ilce.edu.mx. Archived from the original on 1 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[5] "Conmemora la SecretarĂa de Cultura el 185 Aniversario del Decreto de CreaciĂłn del Distrito Federal". Cultura.df.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[Guardian_2016-01-29-6] Agren, David (29 January 2015). "Mexico City officially changes its name to – Mexico City". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2016.

[7] "Resumen". Cuentame INEGI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.

[8] "Relieve". Cuentame INEGI. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2010.

[inegi_pop_2020-9] "Censo Población y Vivienda 2020". inegi.org.mx (in Spanish). INEGI. 25 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2021.

[10] Citibanamex (13 June 2023). "Indicadores Regionales de Actividad Económica 2023" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2023.

[11] "Mexico - Sub-national HDI". Global Data Lab. Radboud University Institute for Management Research. Retrieved 26 September 2024.

[13] "México" in Diccionario panhispánico de dudas by Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language, Madrid: Santillana. 2005. ISBN 978-8-429-40623-8.

[14] "IHUEYTLANAHUATIL MEXIHCO HUEYALTEPETL" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.

[15] Maya: u noj kaajil México "U NOJ A'ALAMAJT'AANIL U NOJ KAAJIL MÉXICO" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.

[17] "Artículo 44" (PDF). Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2010.

[18] Agren, David (29 January 2016). "Mexico City officially changes its name to – Mexico City". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2016.

[19] "The 2008 Global Cities Index". Foreign Policy. 2008. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2009.

[20] Blouet, Brian W.; Blouet, Olwyn M. (2009). OECD Reviews of Regional Innovation OECD Reviews of Regional Innovation: 15 Mexican States 2009. OECD Publishing. pp. 418, 299. ISBN 978-92-64-06012-8.

[21] United Nations (2019). "World Urbanization Prospects 2018" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021.

[22] Global MetroMonitor | Brookings Institution Archived 5 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Brookings.edu. Retrieved 12 April 2014.

[GDP-23] "Key Economic Facts and Figures". Mexico City Experience. Archived from the original on 26 April 2010. Retrieved 19 August 2010.

[24] Parish Flannery, Nathaniel (23 December 2013). "Mexico City Is Focusing on Tech Sector Development". Forbes. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2013.

[gobdf-26] Government of the Federal District. "Historia de la Ciudad de México" [History of Mexico City]. df.gob.mx (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2009.

[UN-27] United Nations. "Mexico City, Mexico" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2 May 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2009.

[28] Daniel C. Schechter, Josephine Quintero. Lonely Planet Mexico City, City Guide [With Pullout Map]. Third Edition. Lonely Planet, 2008. p. 288 (pp. 20–21). ISBN 978-1-74059-182-9.

[29] Gallo, Rubén (6 April 2021). "A Chronicle of Mexico City and Its Multitudes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[30] Lopez Torregrosa, Luisita (27 April 2017). "My Mexico City is everyone's now". The Seattle Times. Mexico City. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[31] "Mexico's Quintana Roo state decriminalises abortion". Al Jazeera. 26 October 2022. Archived from the original on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[32] Linares, Albinson (21 October 2021). "These people want to die. Will their countries allow euthanasia?". NBC News. Telemundo. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[33] Malkin, Elisabeth (21 July 2009). "Express Route to Divorce Has Familiar Delays". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[34] "Mexico City legalises same-sex marriage". The Guardian. Associated Press. 22 December 2009. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

[35] Hogue, Tom (25 June 2023). "Mexico City holds mass celebration for same-sex weddings, gender ID changes". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 November 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2023.

[Federal_District_Now_Officially-36] Richards, Tony (30 January 2016). "Federal District is now officially Mexico City: The change brings more autonomy for the country's capital". Mexico News Daily. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.

[37] "From DF to CDMX, Mexico City changes name, status". Inquirer News. Agence France-Presse. 30 January 2016. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022.

[UN2-38] "La Ciudad de México no será estado, sino entidad federal autónoma". Diario de México (in Spanish). 28 January 2016. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016.

[39] Diccionario Porrúa. Historia, Biografía y Geografía de México, Editorial Porrúa, S.A., Mexico City, Fifth Edition, 1986, Vol. II, page 1638.

[40] Alberto Dallal. "La Ciudad de México: el espectáculo más grande del mundo". Electronic magazine Imágenes of the Institute of Aesthetic Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.

[41] Ramón Gutiérrez del Mazo (Intendent of Mexico: 1811–1821) (1811). La muy noble, muy leal, insigne é imperial ciudad de México, cabeza de los reynos y provincias de Nueva España y en si nombre los señores presidente y vocales que componen la Real Junta de Policía de esta Córte con anuencia del Exmo. Sr. virey de este reyno hacemos saber al piadoso vecindario lo que sigue [The very noble, very loyal, distinguished and imperial city of Mexico, head of the kingdoms and provinces of New Spain and in its name the sirs president and members of the Royal Police Board of this Court with the consent of the Excellency Sr. Viceroy of this kingdom let the pious neighborhood know what's coming next]. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2020.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[42] 1994 Oxford Spanish-English Dictionary

[FOOTNOTELida200815-43] Lida 2008, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTELida200816-44] Lida 2008, p. 16.

[45] The evidence consists of a burial in the first case, and of lithic flakes associated with remains of extinct fauna. They were estimated to be about 10 000 years old. Cfr. Acosta Ochoa, 2007: 9.

[46] Gonzalez, Silvia; Jiménez-López, José Concepción; Hedges, Robert; Huddart, David; Ohman, James C; Turner, Alan; Pompa y Padilla, José Antonio (March 2003). "Earliest humans in the Americas: new evidence from México". Journal of Human Evolution. 44 (3): 381. Bibcode:2003JHumE..44..379.. doi:10.1016/s0047-2484(03)00004-6. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12674097. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2022.

[47] "El ADN de La Mujer del Peñón confirma el origen asiático del hombre americano". www.cronica.com.mx. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 28 September 2019.

[48] Karen Mutton (2011). Scattered Skeleton in Our Closet. Adventures Unlimited Press. ISBN 978-1-935487-41-8. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2020.

[49] David Epstein (2 January 2005). "First Americans May Have Come From Australia". Discover. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.

[50] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mexico City" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 346. The City of Mexico dates, traditionally, from the year 1325 or 1327

[51] Frances F. Berdan, The Aztecs of Mexico: An Imperial Society, New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston 1982, pp. 10–14.

[Frances_F._Berdan_1982,_p._14-52] Frances F. Berdan, The Aztecs of Mexico: An Imperial Society, New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston 1982, p. 14.

[Ciudad_Mexico-53] "Historia de la Ciudad de México" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2008.

[Marroqui-54] Marroqui, Jose Maria (1969). La Ciudad de Mexico. Mexico City: Ayuntamiento del Distrito Federal. pp. 21–25.

[pbs1-55] "Conquistadors – Cortés. November 1519, The Most Beautiful Thing in the World". PBS. Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[pbs2-56] "Conquistadors – Cortés. November, 1519 – Montezuma Arrested". PBS. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[pbs4-57] "Conquistadors – Cortés. June 1520 – Massacre at Tenochtitlán". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[pbs6-58] "Conquistadors – Cortés. December 1520 – Siege, Starvation & Smallpox". PBS. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[pbs7-59] "Conquistadors – Cortés. The Last Stand: An Aztec Iliad". PBS. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[Enc_Mex_2000-60] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Alvarez, Jose Rogelio (2000). "Mexico, Ciudad de". Enciclopedia de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. 9. Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. 5242–5260.

[61] Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Motolinia's History of the Indians of New Spain, translated and edited by Elizabeth Adnros Foster. Wesport: Greenwood Press, (1950) 1973, pp. 41–42

[62] Edmundo O'Gorman, Reflexiones sobre la distribución urbana coloinal de la ciudad de México, Mexico 1938, pp. 16ff.

[63] Magnus Mörner and Charles Gibson, "Diego Muñoz Camargo and the Segregation Policy of the Spanish Crown," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 42, pp. 558ff.

[64] Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson 2003, pp. 246–249.

[65] Noble David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. New York: Cambridge University Press 1998.

[Hamnett_1998-66] Hamnett, Brian R. (1998). Concise History of Mexico. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58120-2.

[Ladd_1998-67] Ladd, Doris M (1998). Artes deMexico Palacios de la Nueva España The Mexican Nobility. Mexico City: Artes de Mexico y del Mundo. pp. 84–86. ISBN 978-968-6533-61-3.

[Iturbide-68] "Don Agustín de Iturbide". Archived from the original on 11 April 2004. Retrieved 20 October 2008.

[Countries_of_the_World-69] Weil, Thomas E. (1 January 1991). "Mexico: Chapter 3B. Evolution of a Nation". Countries of the World. Bureau Development, Inc.

[70] Mody, Ashoka (1996). "Infrastructure Delivery". Countries of the World. World Bank Publications. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-8213-3520-8.

[Cerro-71] "The Battle of Cerro Gordo". PBS. Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2008.

[Storming_of_Chapultepec-72] "The Storming of Chapultepec (General Pillow's Attack)". PBS. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2008.

[treaty-73] Richard Griswold del Castillo. "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo". PBS. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2008.

[74] "Album, Mexican Revolution". Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2022.

[redescolar-75] "La Decena Trágica, febrero de 1913" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2008.

[LaRosa_2005-76] LaRosa, Michael J., ed. (2005). Atlas and Survey of Latin American History. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. pp. 118–125. ISBN 9780765615978.

[77] "Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.

[water-78] National Research Council Staff (1995). Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. p. 4.

[79] Doyle, Kate (29 May 2023). "TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968". National Security Archive. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.

[Campus-80] Campus, Yunnven (19 September 2005). "A 20 años del sismo del 85" (in Spanish). Mexico City: Televisa. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2008.

[haber-81] Haber, Paul Lawrence (1995). "Earthquake of 1985". Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Frances Ltd. pp. 179–184.

[Porrua_Cuenca-82] Diccionario Porrua de Historia, Biografia y Geografia de Mexico 6th ed. – Mexico, Cuenca de (in Spanish). Vol. 3. Mexico City: Editorial Porrua. 1995. p. 2238. ISBN 978-968-452-907-6.

[case_study-83] "Mexico City: Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable Management of Urban Water Resources". December 2004. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2008.

[National_Research-84] National Research Council Staff (1995). Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-05245-0.

[Yip_2002-85] Yip, Maricela; Madl, Pierre (16 April 2002). "Air Pollution in Mexico City". University of Salzburg, Austria. p. 16. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2008.

[86] O’Hanlon, L. (22 April 2021). "The Looming Crisis of Sinking Ground in Mexico City". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022. The ground in Mexico City is sinking at a rate of almost 50 centimeters (20 inches) per year...

[87] New York Times: "Mexico City, Parched and Sinking, Faces a Water Crisis" By Michael Kimmelman 17 February 2017

[88] Cooke, Julia (27 February 2008). "Los Angeles and Mexico City: A Tale of Two Cities". laweekly.com. Archived from the original on 20 September 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2017.

[harvard-89] "Coming up for air". Harvard Gazette. 28 October 2014. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.

[clean-90] "Mexico City cleans up its reputation for smog". 26 December 2008. Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.

[NY_Times_1987-12-13-91] Larry Rother (13 December 1987). "Chapultepec Park: Mexico in Microcosm". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.

[92] "Historia del Bosque de Chapultepec" [History of the Forest of Chapultepec] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Dirección del Bosque de Chapultepec. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010.

[93] Meade, Julie (2016). Moon Mexico City. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 9781631214097. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Just west of Bellas Artes, the Alameda Central is the largest green space in the center of the city and the oldest public park in the Americas.

[94] "Three Kings Day in Mexico, a holiday in flux". LA Times Blogs – La Plaza. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Consider the scene this week at the Alameda Central, the downtown Mexico City park historians describe as the oldest planned urban green space in the Americas.

[95] Lidia Arista (16 January 2011). "5 parques representativos del DF" [5 iconic parks of Mexico City]. El Universal. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.

[96] "Historia del zoológico". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[97] "Colección animal". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[98] "Historia del zoológico". 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[99] "Colección animal". 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[100] "Historia del zoológico". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[101] "Colección animal". 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2018.

[weatherspark-102] "Average Weather for Mexico City". Weather Spark. Archived from the original on 5 November 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2013.

[103] "CDMX rompe por segundo día consecutivo récord de calor; alcanza los 34.7° celsius". El Economista (in Spanish). 25 May 2024. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.

[Clima-CDMX-104] Jáuregui Ostos, Ernesto (2000). El clima de la Ciudad de México (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Instituto de Geografía de la UNAM. ISBN 978-968-856-819-4.

[105] "Snow in Mexico City". The Baltimore Sun (Baltimore, Maryland USA). 13 February 1907. p. 2.

[106] "Snow Falls in Mexico City". The Baltimore Sun (Baltimore, Maryland USA). p. 1.

[107] "Snowfall Startles Mexico City". The New York Times. 15 March 1940. p. 3.

[108] "6 Die As Snow Storm Covers Mexico City". The New York Times. 12 January 1967. p. 13.

[DAMsxix-109] Escobar Ohmstede, Antonio (2004). Juan Manuel Pérez Zevallos (ed.). Desastres agrícolas en México: Siglo XIX Tomo 2 (1822–1900) (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica (FCE); Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (CIESAS). ISBN 978-968-16-7188-4.

[110] "Program to improve air quality in the Metropolitan zone of the valley of Mexico – 2002. Secretaría del Medio Ambiente del Distrito Federal, SMA (2002) Programa para Mejorar la Calidad del Aire de la Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México, Gobierno del Distrito Federal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2007.

[Lafragua_2003-111] Lafregua, J; Gutierrez, A; Aguilar E; Aparicio J; Mejia R; Santillan O; Suarez MA; Preciado M (2003). "Balance hídrico del Valle de Mexico" (PDF). Anuario IMTA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2008.

[112] Guzmán, Alejandro (16 April 2024). "Ciudad de México rompe récord de temperatura con 34,2 grados: ¿qué es una onda de calor, cómo se produce y cuánto durará la actual?". El País (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.

[SMN_normales-113] "Estado de Ciudad de Mexico-Estacion: Tacubaya Central (OBS)". Normales Climatologicas 1991–2020 (in Spanish). Servicio Meteorológico Nacional. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.

[SMN_extremes-114] "Extreme Temperatures and Precipitation for Tacubaya Central (OBS)" (in Spanish). Servicio Meteorológico Nacional. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2021.

[WMO-115] "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010". World Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2021.

[116] "Mexico City Population". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2014.

[117] "The Hispanic Experience – Indigenous Identity in Mexico". Houstonculture.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[CONAPOzm2005-118] Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Delimitación de las zonas metropolitanas de México 2005. Retrieved 27 September 2008. Archived 6 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine

[CONAPOProy2-119] "Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Proyecciones de la Población de México 2005–2050". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2007. Total projected population of Mexico City and the 60 other municipalities of Zona metropolitana del Valle de México, as defined in 2005. Retrieved 27 September 2008.

[Sintesis-120] Síntesis de Resultados del Conteo 2005 Archived 9 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine INEGI

[121] "Tasa de emigración, inmigración y migración neta de las entidades federativas". Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[qro-mega-122] "Querétaro ya será parte de la megalópolis ('Querétaro will now be part of the megalopolis')". Diario de Querétaro. 25 October 2019. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.

[mega-came-123] Comisión Ambiental de la Megalópolis (September 2018). "La megalópolis de la ZMVM (The Greater Mexico City Megalopolis)". Gobierno de Mexico (Government of Mexico) (in Spanish). Comisión Ambiental de la Megalópolis. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023.

[124] "Tasa de emigración, inmigración y migración neta de las entidades federativas". Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2013.

[125] Volumen y porcentaje de la población de 5 y más años católica por entidad federativa, 2010 Archived 7 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine INEGI

[126] Mora Duro, Carlos Nazario (2019). "Agnostics and Atheists in Mexico". In Gooren, Henri (ed.). Encyclopedia of Latin American Religions. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 66–70. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27078-4_369. ISBN 978-3-319-27077-7. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2021.

[127] Ronald J. Morgan, Spanish American Saints and the Rhetoric of Identity, 1600–1810. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2002, pp. 143–169

[128] Agren, David (30 September 2019). "Three new dioceses carved out of Archdiocese of Mexico". Crux. Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2019.

[129] Población de 5 y más años hablante de lengua indígena por principales lenguas, 2005 Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine INEGI

[130] "Panorama sociodemográfico de México". www.inegi.org.mx. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.

[extranjeros-131] "Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 July 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[132] "Los extranjeros en México, la inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[133] "Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[134] Carl Franz & Lorena Havens. "How Many Americans Live in Mexico?". Peoplesguide.com. Archived from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[135] "Private American Citizens Residing Abroad". Overseasdigest.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[136] "Mexico City, Mexico - UNESCO Learning City Awardee 2015 | UIL". uil.unesco.org. 5 July 2015. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2022.

[catalog.hathitrust.org-137] Steck; Francis Borgia (1936). The first college in America: Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Achievement and influence of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Washington DC. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[138] Lourdes Arencibia Rodriguez (27 September 2017). "The Imperial College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco : The First School of Translators and Interpreters in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America1". The Imperial College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco. Regards sur la traduction | Perspectives on Translation. Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa | University of Ottawa Press. pp. 263–275. ISBN 9780776626208. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.

[MexDes-139] Tavares Lopez, Edgar (February 2008). "Ciudad Universitaria". México Desconocido. 372: 90–92.

[140] "Times Higher Education Supplement, 2006". Eluniversal.com.mx. Archived from the original on 9 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[141] "University of California Mexico City". Universityofcalifornia.edu. Archived from the original on June 13, 2011. Retrieved April 17, 2011.

[142] "Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States (1824)". Archived from the original on 18 March 2012.

[143] Boletín Mexicano de Derecho Comparado Archived 10 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Juridicas.unam.mx. Retrieved on 12 April 2014.

[EncMex2003-144] Alvarez, Jose Rogelio (2003). "Distrito Federal". Enciclopedia de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. IV. Sabeco International Investment Corp. pp. 2293–2314. ISBN 978-1-56409-063-8.

[df.gob.mx-145] Statute of Government of the Federal District Archived 13 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine

[146] Tavera Fenollosa, Ligia (3 March 2016). "Eventful temporality and the unintended outcomes of Mexico's earthquake victims movement". In Rossi, Federico M.; Bülow, Marisa von (eds.). Social Movement Dynamics: New Perspectives on Theory and Research from Latin America. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-05370-5.

[147] "Constitución Política de la Ciudad de México" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.

[148] "Constitución Política de la Ciudad de México" (PDF). 30 January 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.

[149] "Codigo Financiero Del Distrito Federal*" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[150] Caistor, Nicholas (2019). Mexico City. London, England: Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781789141108. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2021.

[151] "Mexico Bares Its Liberal Side, and More". NPR. 8 May 2007. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.

[152] "Aprueba ALDF en lo general reforma sobre el aborto". El Universal. 24 April 2007. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007. Retrieved 25 April 2007.

[153] "Mexico City legalises same-sex marriage". The Guardian. Mexico City. Associated Press. 22 December 2009. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.

[cdmxconst-154] "Constitution of Mexico City" (PDF) (in Spanish). Gobierno de la Ciudad de México. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2021.

[census2020-155] "Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020 - SCITEL" (in Spanish). INEGI. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.

[DISTRITO_FEDERAL-156] "Panorama de la entidad (Panorama of the entity)" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2012.

[157] "Police say Giuliani helps cut Mexico City crime". San Diego Union-Tribune. 12 May 2004. Archived from the original on 9 June 2004. Retrieved 15 September 2009.

[158] "Security central in Mexico City's makeover". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2015.

[mueller-159] "Punishing the informal". Digital Development Debats. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.

[160] Arturo Páramo (16 November 2016). "Suma la ciudad 39 feminicidios". Excélsior. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.

[161] "Mujeres en la capital están luchando contra el acoso desenfrenado". Excélsior. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.

[162] "Así se vive el acoso en el Metro de la CDMX". Excélsior. 9 March 2017. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.

[Acuerdos-163] "Acuerdos interinstitucionales registrados por dependencias y municipios de Ciudad de México". sre.gob.mx (in Spanish). Secretaría de relaciones exteriores. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2020.

[164] "Ciudades Hermanas de Cusco". aatccusco.com (in Spanish). Asociación de Agencias de Turismo del Cusco. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2020.

[165] "Städtepartnerschaft Mexiko-Stadt". berlin.de (in German). 12 September 2023. Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.

[166] "Mexico City". chicagosistercities.com. Chicago Sister Cities International. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 5 June 2020.

[167] "Mexico City CORPORATE FINANCE". Prudential Private Capital, Prudential Financial. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2019.

[INEGI-168] "Producto interno bruto por entidad federativa. Participación sectorial por entidad federative" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 14 July 2007.

[169] "HDR 2006 | Spanish | Human Development Reports (HDR) | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)". Hdr.undp.org. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[ukmediacentre.pwc.com-170] PricewaterhouseCoopers (11 February 2009). "Emerging market city economies set to rise rapidly in global GDP rankings says PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP". UK Media Centre. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2009.

[emporis-171] "Emporis". Archived from the original on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[furness-172] Furness, Charlie (April 2008). "Boomtown". Geographical. 80 (4): 36–45. 0016741X.

[actecon-173] "Economía reciente, 1990-2005" [Economy] (in Spanish). Mexico City: Borough of Iztapapala. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.

[pena-174] Sergio Peña (1999). "Informal Markets: Street Vendors in Mexico City" (PDF). Florida State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.

[175] "Reporte Temático No. 2: Comercio Ambulante" (PDF). Cámara de Diputados (Mexico), Centro de Estudios Sociales y de Opinión Pública. June 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[176] "Tianguis de la San Felipe: no podrás recorrerlo en un día". Máspormás. 23 January 2017. Archived from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.

[177] "Calles con vocación" (PDF). Km.cero: 7. November 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[178] Alfonso Valenzuela (2007). "Santa Fé (México): Megaproyectos para una ciudad dividida". Cuadernos Geográficos (in Spanish) (40). University of Granada, Spain: 53–66. ISSN 0210-5462. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.

[179] "CDMX, una de las urbes con más museos en el mundo". El Universal (Mexico City). 17 May 2016. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 11 October 2019.

[180] "¿Quién es Felipe Ángeles y por qué el aeropuerto se llama así? ("Who was Felipe Angeles and why is the airport called that?")". El Universal (Mexico City). 2 October 2021. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.

[181] Suárez, Gerardo (15 April 2019). "Presentan imagen para el Sistema de Movilidad Integrada de la CDMX" [Presenting the symbols for the Integrated Mobility System of Mexico City]. El Universal (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2021.

[182] "World Metro Figures: Statistics Brief" (PDF). UITP. October 2015. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016.

[183] "¿Cuántos autos circulan en la CDMX diariamente?". El Economista (in Spanish). Notimex. 22 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.

[184] "Actualización Del Programa Hoy No Circula" [Update of the "Hoy No Circula" Program] (PDF) (in Spanish). Gobierno Del Distrito Federal, Secretaría Del Medio Ambiente, Dirección General De Gestión Ambiental Del Aire, Dirección De Instrumentación De Políticas. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013.

[185] "Mexican Emission Standards based on Federal Tier I Light-duty Vehicles up to 6000 lbs. GVWR" (PDF). meca.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2016.

[186] "Programa de Verificación Vehicular. Segundo semestre de 2013" [Vehicle Verification Program. Second semester 2013.] (in Spanish). Gobierno del Distrito Federal, Secretaría del Medio Ambiente. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.

[187] Jesús de León Torres (September 2013). "Nuevas estaciones de EcoBici" [New EcoBici stations]. km0 (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2013.

[188] "Untitled Document". df.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2015.

[189] ""Ciclovía Reforma", Transeunte". Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2013.

[190] "The Blue House – Frida Kahlo Museum". www.museofridakahlo.org.mx. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 2 October 2018.

[191] Tuckman, Jo (2 March 2011). "Mexican billionaire's new museum gives The Thinker much to ponder". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2021.

[192] "Ciudad de México.- atractivos turísticos". Mexicocity.com.mx. Archived from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[193] "El Dalai Lama inaugura la exposición: Tíbet. Recuerdos de la patria perdida | La Crónica de Hoy". www.cronica.com.mx. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2020.

[194] "Mexico City Philharmonic". Archived from the original on 2 December 2008.

[195] "Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico". Musicaunam.net. Archived from the original on 22 April 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[196] "Minería Symphony Orchestra". Sinfonicademineria.org. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[197] Dgdc-Unam. "Universum, Museo de las Ciencias". Universum.unam.mx. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[198] "University Museum of Contemporary Art". Archived from the original on 20 December 2014.

[199] Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food. p. 94.

[200] Canavan, Hillary Dixler (20 June 2023). "The World's 50 Best Restaurants 2023: The Full List of Winners". Eater. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2024.

[2014_awards-201] Restaurant, The World's 50 Best Restaurant Awards: 2014 Archived 21 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine

[202] "The World's 50 Best Restaurants 1–50 2019". theworlds50best.com. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2019.

[203] Stone, Sam (15 May 2024). "These Are Mexico's First Michelin-Starred Restaurants, 2024". Bon Appétit. Archived from the original on 23 May 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.

[SIC-204] "Publicaciones periódicas en Ciudad de México". Sistema de Información Cultural (in Spanish). Gobierno de Mexico. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.

[205] "Latin American & Mexican Online News". Research Guides. US: University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries. Archived from the original on 7 March 2020.

[206] Becerra, Martín; Mastrini, Guillermo (2017). "Concentración y convergencia de medios en América Latina". Communiquer. 20 (20): 104–120. doi:10.4000/communiquer.2277. hdl:11336/76220. Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.

[207] "Azteca Uno – Transmisión EN VIVO". aztecauno.com. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

[208] TIM, Televisa. "Home". Televisa. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

[209] "FIFA announces hosts cities for FIFA World Cup 2026™". Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.

[210] "Estadio Diablos: la integración comunitaria". México Design (in Mexican Spanish). 5 April 2019. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.

[211] "NFL regular-season-record crowd of 105,121 sees Giants-Cowboys". NFL.com. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[a]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[c]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[d]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

Authority control databases
International	ISNI VIAF FAST WorldCat
National	Germany United States France BnF data Japan Australia Czech Republic Spain Norway Croatia Chile Greece Argentina Poland Israel Catalonia
Geographic	MusicBrainz area
Academics	CiNii
Other	IdRef 2 NARA