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Socialist Party USA

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This article is about the Socialist Party founded in 1973. For the Socialist Party active from 1901 through 1972, see Socialist Party of America.

Socialist Party of the United States of America
Chairs
  • Claudia Miller (SC)
  • Nicholas Partyka (NY)[1]
Vice Chairs
  • Ren Walstrom (IN)
  • Brian Bittner (MD)[1]
SecretaryGreg Pason
TreasurerPat Noble
Editor
  • Nicholas Partyka
FoundedMay 30, 1973; 51 years ago (1973-05-30)
Split fromSocial Democrats, USA
Preceded bySocialist Party of America
Headquarters168 Canal Street, 6th Floor New York City, New York 10013 (A. J. Muste Institute)
IdeologyDemocratic socialism
Anti-capitalism
Eco-socialism
Radical democracy[2]
Political positionLeft-wing
Colors  Red
Seats in the Senate
0 / 100
Seats in the House
0 / 435
Governorships
0 / 50
State Upper House Seats
0 / 1,972
State Lower House Seats
0 / 5,411
Local Offices2 (2024)
Website
www.socialistpartyusa.net
This article is part of a series on
Socialism
in the United States
History
Utopian socialism

Progressive Era

Repression and persecution

Anti-war and civil rights movements

Contemporary

People
Active organizations
Inactive or defunct organizations
Literature
Related topics

The Socialist Party of the United States of America (also Socialist Party USA or SPUSA) is a socialist political party in the United States. SPUSA formed in 1973, one year after the Socialist Party of America splintered into three: Social Democrats, USA (legal successor), the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (split), and SPUSA.

SPUSA describes itself as a multi-tendency socialist party which hopes to win socialism through a "democratic revolution from below". In contrast to the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA), SPUSA advocates for "uncompromising independence" from the Democratic Party. SPUSA describes socialism as "radical democracy", in opposition to "capitalist and authoritarian statist systems".[2]

Notable members include David McReynolds, Frank Zeidler, and Dan La Botz. Former members include Ben Burgis.

Organization

[edit]
Pat Noble, National Co-Chair of the Socialist Party

SPUSA is headquartered at the A. J. Muste Institute. As of September 2024, the Socialist Party had 11 local and state parties. Active SPUSA state parties include Michigan, New Jersey, Wisconsin. Inactive state parties include California, Maine, Kansas.[3]

Membership

[edit]

In 1975, chairman Frank Zeidler claimed that SPUSA had around 500 members nationwide.[4] SPUSA saw growth during the late 1970s and early to mid-1980s, expanding from around 600 members to around 1,700 members.[5] In 2008, WMNF claimed that SPUSA had around 3,000 members.[6] However, in 2010, CommonDreams wrote that SPUSA had only 1,000 members, and party members described that as an increase in membership.[7] In May 2011, the The New York Times stated that SPUSA had "about 1,000 members nationally".[8] In February 2012, The Root stated that SPUSA had "around 1,500" members.[9][10]

History

[edit]

Background

[edit]
See also: Socialist Party of America

In 1958, the Independent Socialist League, led by Max Shachtman, dissolved and joined the Socialist Party of America (SPA), which was founded by Eugene V. Debs.[11] Shachtman had written that Soviet communism was a new form of class society, bureaucratic collectivism, in which the ruling class exploited and oppressed the population, and therefore he opposed the spread of communism.[12][13][14] Shachtman argued that democratic socialists should work with labor unions and civil rights organizations to build a social democratic "realignment" of the Democratic Party. "Shachmanites" had a great amount of influence on the SPA.[13]

In its 1972 convention, the SPA changed its name to Social Democrats, USA by a vote of 73 to 34, supported by both Co-Chairmen, Bayard Rustin and Charles S. Zimmerman.[15][16] This rename was meant to be "realistic". The New York Times observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored Darlington Hoopes as its candidate for president in the 1956 election, who received only 2,121 votes, in just six states. The majority report noted that the name "party" was "misleading" because the SPA no longer sponsored presidential candidates, and also hindered recruitment of activists who participated in the Democratic Party. The name "Socialist" was replaced by "Social Democrats" because many American associated the word "socialism" with Soviet communism.[15] The party also wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties.[17]

The convention elected a national committee of 33 members, with 22 seats for the majority caucus, 8 seats for Harrington's Coalition Caucus, 2 for the Debs caucus, and one for the "independent" Samuel  H. Friedman.[18] These minority caucuses all opposed the name change.[15] The convention voted on and adopted proposals for its program by a two-one vote, with the majority caucus winning every vote.[18]

Founding

[edit]

After their defeat at the convention, members of the two minority caucuses helped to found new socialist organizations. Harrington's Coalition Caucus created the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee.

The Debs Caucus, led by David McReynolds, formed the Union for Democratic Socialism. On May 30, 1973, the UDS incorporated the Socialist Party of the United States of America.[19] Many activists from the local and state branches of the old Socialist Party of America, including the party's Wisconsin, California, Illinois, New York City, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. organizations, participated in the reconstitution of SPUSA.[20]

After its founding, the party promoted itself as the legitimate heir of the Socialist Party of America.[21] SPUSA elected Frank Zeidler, former Mayor of Milwaukee, as its first national chairperson. Later, SPUSA nominated Zeidler for President. Zeidler believed the party would be able to collaborate with other socialist parties nationwide to spread the message of socialism.[4]

Subsequent history

[edit]

In 2008, SPUSA candidate for President Brian Moore vocally opposed the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind,[22] saying it was "misleading of the Republicans" to spread that message.[23]

In 2009, the Socialist Party of Connecticut protested in Hartford against Obama's troop surge in Afghanistan.[24]

In 2010, SPUSA Co-Chair Billy Wharton called Obama's 2010 State of the Union Address a "public relations ploy".[25] Wharton criticized the Affordable Care Act as designed "to protect the profit margins of private insurance companies".[26]

Ideology

[edit]

SPUSA argues that socialism can only come through social revolution. SPUSA tendencies include both democratic socialism, for a gradual transformation of society, and revolutionary socialism, for a rapid transformation following a slow "socialist transformation from below" through radically democratic "people's organizations".[2] SPUSA describes socialism as a radically democratic system which "places people's lives under their own control—a classless, feminist, socialist society free of racism, sexism, homophobia or transphobia," and in which "the people own and control the means of production and distribution through democratically controlled public agencies, cooperatives, or other collective groups"; "full employment is realized for everyone who wants to work"; "workers have the right to form unions freely, and to strike and engage in other forms of job actions"; and "production of society is used for the benefit of all humanity, not for the private profit of a few."[2]

Socialist Party candidates support expanding social spending and social ownership of capital. In 2009, Greg Pason's proposals included socializing the United States health care system, a steeply graduated income tax, universal rent control and the elimination of all educational debts and tuition fees.[27] In 1997, Pason called auto insurance "a regressive tax against working people".[28] Moore was also vocal of his support for socialized medicine.[29] Moore supported economic democracy through social ownership and workers' control of our reigning industrial and financial institutions.[22]

Election results

[edit]

SPUSA has fielded electoral candidates for local, state, and federal offices. SPUSA candidates usually run on a SPUSA ballot line, as independent, or as Green Party candidates.

SPUSA has often endorsed members of the Vermont Progressive Party (VPP), such as Peter Diamondstone.[30] Most of these individuals were members of the Vermont socialist Liberty Union Party, but not members of SPUSA. These endorsees-but-not-members of SPUSA are not included below.

SPUSA has won several local offices, but never a state legislature, statewide, or federal office.

Current elected members

[edit]

Presidential elections

[edit]
Year Presidential candidate Vice presidential candidate Popular votes % Electoral votes Result Ballot access Notes Ref
2024 Bill Stodden Stephanie Cholensky TBD TBD TBD TBD
1 / 51
 [31]
2020 Howie Hawkins Angela Nicole Walker 405,034
0.3%
 0 Lost
29 / 51
 [a] [32]
2016 Mimi Soltysik Angela Nicole Walker 4,061
0.00%
 0 Lost
3 / 51
 [33]
2012 Stewart Alexander Alejandro Mendoza 4,430
0.00%
 0 Lost
3 / 51
 [34][35]
2008 Brian Moore Stewart Alexander 6,581
0.01%
 0 Lost
8 / 51
 [36][37]
2004 Walt Brown Mary Alice Herbert 10,822
0.01%
 0 Lost
8 / 51
 [38]
2000 David McReynolds Mary Cal Hollis 5,602
0.01%
 0 Lost
7 / 51
 [39][40]
1996 Mary Cal Hollis Eric Chester 4,764
0.01%
 0 Lost
5 / 51
 [41][42]
1992 J. Quinn Brisben Barbara Garson 3,057
0.00%
 0 Lost
4 / 51
 [43][44]
1988 Willa Kenoyer Ron Ehrenreich 3,882
0.00%
 0 Lost
6 / 51
 [45][46]
1980 David McReynolds Diane Drufenbrock 6,898
0.01%
 0 Lost
10 / 51
 [47][48]
1976 Frank Zeidler J. Quinn Brisben 6,038
0.01%
 0 Lost
7 / 51
 [49][50]

In the 1984 presidential election, SPUSA nominated the Citizens Party candidate for president, Sonia Johnson.

In the 2020 presidential election, the SPUSA nominated the Green Party nominee Howie Hawkins for president. Hawkins also received various state-level party endorsements, such as the Liberty Union Party in Vermont, in a bid to unite the "non-sectarian independent Left" behind a single campaign.[51]

Congressional elections

[edit]
Year Candidate Chamber State District Votes % Result Notes Ref
2016 Jarrod Williams Senate Nevada At-Large 6,888
0.62%
 Lost ran as Independent [52][53][54]
2014 Susan Purviance House Ohio 9th n/a
0%
 Lost write-in [55][56]
2012 Greg Pason Senate New Jersey At-Large 2,249
0.07%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [57][58][59][60]
2010 Dan La Botz Senate Ohio At-Large 26,454
0.69%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [61][30]
2008 Todd Vachon House Connecticut 2 15
0%
 Lost write-in [30]
2008 Marc Luzietti House Florida 20 9
0%
 Lost write-in [30]
2008 Jean Treacy House Michigan 1st 2,669
0.81%
 Lost ran as Green [62][63][30]
2006 Greg Pason Senate New Jersey At-Large 2,490
0.1%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [64][65]
2006 Willie Norwood House New Jersey 2nd 385
0.21%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [64][65]
2006 Willie Norwood House Massachusetts 1st n/a
0%
 Lost write-in [66]
2004 Lisa Weltman House Michigan 14th 2,224
0.87%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][67][68]
2004 Greg Pason House New Jersey 5th 574
0.19%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [68][65]
2004 Costantino Rozzo House New Jersey 2nd 595
0.22%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [68][65]
2004 Walt Brown House Oregon 3rd 10,678
3.08%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [68]
2004 Dorman Hayes House Rhode Island 2nd 3,303
1.59%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [68]
2002 Willie Norwood House Massachusetts 1st n/a
0%
 Lost write-in [66]
2002 Greg Pason Senate New Jersey At-Large 2,702
0.13%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [69][65]
2002 Costantino Rozzo House New Jersey 2nd 771
0.46%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [69][65]
2002 Walt Brown House Oregon 3rd 6,588
2.80%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [69]
2000 Greg Pason Senate New Jersey At-Large 3,365
0.11%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [70][71][65]
2000 Costantino Rozzo House New Jersey 2nd 788
0.34%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [70][65]
2000 Walt Brown House Oregon 3rd 4,703
1.73%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [70]
2000 David Duemler House Oregon 4th 421
0.14%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [70]
1994 Greg Pason House New Jersey 9th 1,490
0.93%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [72][73]

Statewide elections

[edit]
Year Candidate Office State District Votes % Result Notes Ref
2020 Robin Laurain University Trustee Michigan State University At-Large 74,495
0.76%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][74][75]
2018 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 9,706
3.6%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
2016 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 29,711
10.4%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
2014 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 17,460
10.3%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
2014 Adam Adrianson University Trustee Michigan State University At-Large 33,914
0.62%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][77][55]
2013 Maynor Moreno Governor New Jersey At-Large n/a
0%
 Lost write-in [55]
2012 Dwain Reynolds Board of Education Michigan At-Large 66,123
0.81%
 Lost ran as Green [62][78][59]
2012 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 34,105
13.1%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [79][80][76]
2010 Diana Demers University Regent University of Michigan At-Large 80,365
1.41%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][81]
2009 Greg Pason Governor New Jersey At-Large 2,085
0.09%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [82][83]
2008 Dwain Reynolds Board of Education Michigan At-Large 94,663
1.12%
 Lost ran as Green [62][63]
2006 Jacob Woods Board of Education Michigan At-Large 60,684
0.91%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][84]
2006 Mary Alice Herbert Governor Vermont At-Large 2,995
1.2%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
2005 Costantino Rozzo Governor New Jersey At-Large 2,078
0.09%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [65][85]
2004 Ben Burgis University Trustee Michigan State University At-Large 75,047
0.92%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][67]
2001 Costantino Rozzo Governor New Jersey At-Large 1,537
0.07%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [65][86]
1997 Greg Pason Governor New Jersey At-Large 2,800
0.12%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [87]
1996 Mary Alice Herbert Governor Vermont At-Large 4,156
1.6%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
1994 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 9,368
4.6%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
1992 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 21,161
8.0%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]
1990 Mary Alice Herbert Secretary of State Vermont At-Large 14,555
7.4%
 Lost ran as SPUSA and Liberty Union candidate [76]

State legislature elections

[edit]
Year Candidate Office State District Votes % Result Notes Ref
2020 Jonny Meade House Washington 22nd 3,000
5.14%
 Lost nonpartisan election [88][75]
2020 Rick Sauermilch House Michigan 110th 543
1.21%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][74][75]
2018 Matt Kuehnel House Michigan 22nd 999
3.3%
 Lost a libertarian socialist who ran as a Libertarian Party candidate [62][89][90]
2018 Maia Dendinger Senate Maine 5th 1,109
7.1%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [91][92]
2018 David Elliot Pritt House West Virginia 32nd 2,384
6.04%
 Lost ran as a Mountain Party candidate [93]
2016 Seth Baker Senate Maine 27th 3,712
16.7%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [94][53]
2016 Michael Anderson House Michigan 70th 1,584
4.8%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][53][95]
2014 Mimi Soltysik California State Assembly California 62nd 922[b]
2.5%
 Lost ran as No Party Preference [55]
2012 Alex Mendoza House Texas 65th 6,763
19.06%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [96]
2012 Alex Mendoza House Texas 65th 1,224
2.31%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [97]
2012 Jeff Peress Assembly New York 13th 395
0.74%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [98][55]
2012 John Longhurst House Michigan 106th 1,178
2.51%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][78][59]
2012 Sean Haggard House Michigan 54th 0
0%
 Lost write-in [62][78][59]
2012 Ron Haldeman House Indiana 94th 752
3.35%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [99][59]
2012 John Strinka House Indiana 39th 2,862
9.8%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [99][59]
2008 Matt Erard House Michigan 53rd 2,200
4.55%
 Lost ran as Green [62][63][30]
2008 Jon Osborne Senate Rhode Island 34th 2,494
21.6%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [100][30]
2006 Matt Erard House Michigan 53rd 847
2.51%
 Lost ran as Independent [62][84]
2006 Jeff Brindle Assembly Pennsylvania 26th 2,873
17.33%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [101]
2005 Sharon Chiorazzo Assembly New Jersey 2nd 832
0.77%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [65][102]
2005 Willie Norwood Assembly New Jersey 10th 665
0.61%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [65][102]
2005 Scott Baier Assembly New Jersey 2nd 584
0.46%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [102]
1982 William Shakalis Senate Massachusetts Suffolk and Middlesex 4,417
12.3%
 Lost ran as SPUSA candidate [103][66]

Local elections

[edit]
Year Candidate Office City District Votes % Result Notes Ref
2024 Joshua Bradley City Council Raleigh At-Large TBD TBD TBD nonpartisan election [104][105]
2022 Joshua Bradley City Council Raleigh At-Large 18,143
6.9%
 Lost nonpartisan election [104][105]
2022 Sonya Emerick Board of Education Minneapolis At-Large district 52,365
25.43%
 Won nonpartisan election, elect 2 [106][107]
2022 Troy Thompson Mayor Floodwood At-Large 51
31.5%
 Lost nonpartisan election [108]
2021 Pat Noble Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education Monmouth County 1,893
99.2%
 Won nonpartisan election, uncontested [109]
2021 Samantha Pree-Stinson Board of Estimate and Taxation Minneapolis At-Large 25,547[c]
26.8%
 Won nonpartisan election, elect 2, ranked-choice voting [110]
2020 Adriana Cerrillo Board of Education Minneapolis 4th district 15,935
50.06%
 Won nonpartisan election [111][112][113][75]
2020 Andy Argo Public Library Trustee Kalamazoo At-Large 15,965
14.6%
 Lost nonpartisan election [114]
2020 David Robbins City Council Redding Lost [75]
2019 Joshua Bradley City Council Raleigh A 10.4
10.4%
 Lost nonpartisan election [104][105]
2019 Andy Argo City Commissioner Kalamazoo At-Large 1,449
5.7%
 Lost nonpartisan election, elect 3 [115][116][75]
2018 Andrew Saturn Public Utility Commissioner Thurston county 41,664
41.7%
 Lost nonpartisan election [117][118]
2018 Pat Noble Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education Monmouth County 2,539
98.6%
 Won nonpartisan election, uncontested [119]
2018 Reuben Dendinger City Council Orono Lost [92]
2018 Maia Dendinger City Council Orono Lost [92]
2018 Reuben Dendinger Sheriff Los Angeles County Lost [92]
2017 Chris DiLoreto Peterborough Library Trustee Hillsborough County Lost [120]
2017 Allen Braun City Council Bangor Lost [120]
2017 Chelsea Rustad City Council Tumwater 5 1,153
26.36%
 Lost nonpartisan [120][121]
2015 Jeff Peress County Assembly Dutchess County, New York 23rd 206
13.72%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [122][123]
2015 Pat Noble Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education Monmouth County 1,103
98.6%
 Won nonpartisan election, uncontested [124]
2012 Joel Benavidez Justice of the Peace Bexar County 2nd 4,843
3.09%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [125]
2012 Pat Noble Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education Monmouth County 1,187
53.6%
 Won nonpartisan election [126][127][128][59]
2012 Troy Thompson Mayor Floodwood At-Large 60
26.9%
 Lost nonpartisan election [129]
2011 Matt Erard Downtown District Citizens District Council Detroit At-Large Won nonpartisan election [130]
2011 Peter Ponzetti Board of Education Grand Blanc At-Large 424
10.8%
 Lost nonpartisan election [131][132]
2011 Edgar Brandon Collins City Council Charlottesville City Charlottesville 1,480
7.5%
 Lost nonpartisan election [133][132]
2010 Jon Osborne Town Council Hopkinton At-Large 1,597
14.3%
 Won ran as Independent, elect 5 [134]
2010 James Arnoldi Board of Governors Wayne State University At-Large 46,757
0.84%
 Lost ran as Green candidate [62][81]
2008 Peter Moody Borough Council Madison Lost write-in [30]
2004 Carl Williams Board of Trustees Oakland Community College Lost [135]
2003 Bert Zipperer Mayor Madison At-Large 6,610
16.22%
 Lost nonpartisan election, first-round [136]
2000 Wendell Harris Mayor Milwaukee At-Large 7,624
18.3%
 Lost nonpartisan election [137]
1995 Karen Kubby City Council Iowa City At-Large 5,307
52.6%
 Won nonpartisan election [138][139][140]
1991 Karen Kubby City Council Iowa City At-Large 6,380
80%
 Won nonpartisan election [138][139][141]
1989 Karen Kubby City Council Iowa City At-Large 3,519
50.7%
 Won nonpartisan election [138][139][142]
1987 Karen Kubby City Council Iowa City At-Large 2,645
48%
 Lost nonpartisan election [138][139][143]
1985 Karen Kubby City Council Iowa City At-Large 1,974
43%
 Lost nonpartisan election [138][139][144]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Hawkins/Walker was also nominated by the Green Party and appeared on various ballots as either Green or independent
  2. ^ First-round primary vote
  3. ^ First-round votes

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Party Structure".
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  5. ^ Herbst, Moira (May 22, 2009). "Socialism? Hardly, Say Socialists". Business Week. Archived from the original on May 29, 2009. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
  6. ^ Kinane, Sean (June 13, 2008). "Brian Moore – Socialist Party USA Presidential Candidate". WMNF. Archived from the original on June 18, 2008. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
  7. ^ Kenning, Chris (March 1, 2010). "Socialists Get Newfound Attention as 'Red-Baiting' Draws Interest From Youth". Common Dreams NewsCenter. Retrieved March 24, 2010.
  8. ^ Berger, Joseph (May 22, 2011). "Workers of the world, please see our web site" (membership 1,500). The New York Times.
  9. ^ Gordy, Cynthia (February 28, 2012). "Stewart Alexander Wants Your Vote". The Root. Archived from the original on February 29, 2012.
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  12. ^ 2008, p. 63.
  13. ^ a b Drucker (1994):
    Drucker, Peter (1994). Max Shachtman and his left: A socialist's odyssey through the "American Century". Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-03816-8.
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  15. ^ a b c The New York Times reported on the Convention for other days, e.g.
  16. ^ Gerald Sorin, The Prophetic Minority: American Jewish Immigrant Radicals, 1880-1920. Bloomington. Indiana University Press. 1985. p. 155.
  17. ^ Anonymous (December 27, 1972). "Young Socialists open parley; to weigh 'New Politics' split". The New York Times. p. 25. Archived from the original on January 15, 2017.
  18. ^ a b Anonymous (January 1, 1973). "'Firmness' urged on Communists: Social Democrats reach end of U.S. Convention here" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 11.
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  20. ^ Busky 2000, pp. 164.
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  46. ^ Freeman 2008, p. 96.
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  48. ^ Smallwood 1983, p. 56.
  49. ^ "1976 Presidential General Election Results". U.S. Election Atlas. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
  50. ^ 1991, p. 150.
  51. ^ "Howie Hawkins Wins Socialist Party USA Nomination, Green Candidate Seeks To Build Left Unity With Multiple Nominations". Howie Hawkins Presidential Campaign. October 28, 2019. Retrieved October 28, 2019.
  52. ^ "Jarrod Williams". Ballotpedia. Retrieved November 5, 2020.
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References

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Further reading

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